Mish Mashin Genealogy (hope yall enjoy)

1621: Holland forms the Dutch West India Company to invade the Spanish and Portuguese colonies and takes control of Guyana (colonies of Demerara, Essequebo, and Berbice) 1621: The state of Maranhao is separated from Brazil with a governor in Sao Luis 1623: The Dutch seize Bahia from Portuguese Brazil with help from the Portuguese Jews and expand in the Northeast 1624: The Catholic Church foments anti-government riots in Ciudad de Mexico 1629: Brazilian paulistas/mamelucos (slave gatherers) attack the Jesuit missions 1629: The Dutch conquers Pernambuco from Portugal 1631: To escape the Brazilian paulistas/mamelucos, the Jesuit missions of Paraguay/Argetina move inland and found Candelaria 1635: France conquers Martinique, Guadeloupe and Dominique                        1637: Holland captures Portugal's main trading post in Africa, Elmira 1640: Portugal regains its independence and Brazil returns Portuguese  American Plantations and Colonies - Virginia Ships & Passengers, 1640-1649 Virginia, Ships & Passengers, 1640-1649 Ships to Virginia during 1630 to 1639 1642: British colonists settle in Honduras 1643: Sugar is planted in Barbados 1647: Earthquake in Santiago de Chile 1648: End of the "Thirty Years' War" in Europe                                                  1650: Holland becomes the dominant slave trading country  1651: Jews found Curacao 1651: English colonists from Barbados found a colony along the Suriname River 1654: The Brazilians expel the Dutch from Pernambuco                                                           William sr Bass was born March 29, 1654 three of his sons married African women who were freed slaves. Edward,(b) abt 1672 John, (b) abt 1673 and William jr (b) abt 1676 married African women Joseph (b) abt 1679 Keziah (b) 1675-1704. William sr Bass born in NC and his family were Indian taxed as free people of color.   Edward Bass (married) Lovie Anderson ( a freed slave of John Fulsher from NC     i) Katherine Bass (m) Lewis Anderson (black man)      ii) Dinah Bass (m) John Pone (black Man)       iii) Reuben Bass (m) Mary Anderson (black woman)        iv) Benjamin Bass (m) Mary ???              i)Selah (m) Archibald Mitchell              ii)Winnie Bass (m) Jacob Anderson child: Jacob Anderson         v) Edward jr Bass (m) Tamer Anderson             i) Darling Bass (m) Rhoda Anderson             ii) Prudence Bass (m) Jesse Day (Black man) wasn't married until  after children were born                  i) Jethro Bass (m) Polly Mitchell (maybe my grandfather)                  ii) Cullen Bass (m) Ann Mayo John Bass (married) Love Harris he had twelve children one of which married an African Am freed slave   i) Sarah Bass married Lewis Anderson      child: Tamor Anderson   William jr Bass (married) Sarah Lovina Sarah was the mulatto daughter of John Nichols african slave Jean Lovina     i)Sarah       ii) John        iii) William b 1733          iv) Joseph            v)Thomas (m) Sally Butler child: Jacob b) abt 1778 1655: Britain conquers Jamaica from Spain 1658: Buenos Aires has a population of 1,500 1667: British pirate Henry Morgan raids Portobello (Panama) 1667: Britain surrenders Surinam to Holland in return for New Amsterdam (in New York) 1671: British pirate Henry Morgan raids Panama 1674: Spain abolishes the slave trade of Araucanian Indios in Chile 1679: There are 22 utopian Jesuit missions in Paraguay and northern Argentina 1680: Portuguese colonist Manuel de Lobo founds the colony of Sacramento inside Spanish territory of Uruguay, that competes with Buenos Aires via contraband 1683: An international group of pirates raids Vera Cruz (Mexico) 1692: The poor riot in Ciudad de Mexico against state and Church 1693: Gold is discovered in Minas Geraes, Brazil, causing a gold rush in the West, and the center of power shifts from the Northeast towards Rio de Janeiro 1695: The Portuguese exterminate the Quilombo dos Palmares 1695: Gold is discovered in Minas Gerais, Brazil 1697: Spain cedes the western part of Hispaniola to France, renamed Saint-Dominique 1697: An international group of pirates raids Cartagena (Colombia) 1700: Potosi has 14 dancehalls, 36 gambling houses and a theater                   1700: Britain becomes the dominant slave trading country 1702: Due to the blockade of Spain by England and Holland during the "War of Succession", Spain authorizes French ships to trade with its American colonies and therefore removes the ban on all non-Spanish trade with the American colonies 1703: Spain authorizes the colonies to confer public office to mestizos 1711: War of the Mascates in Brazil, a rebellion by landholdes of Recife 1713: The peace of Utrecht allows Britain to export African slaves to Spanish America (1,200 a year to Buenos Aires) 1717: Spain establishes the vice-royalty of Nueva Granada (Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela) with capital in Bogota 1720: Spain abolishes the encomienda 1720: Antonio de Albuquerque is appointed first governor of Minas Gerais, Brazil 1721: Jose de Antoquera jails the governor and seizes power in Paraguay 1722: Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen discovers the Easter Islands 1722: The first newspaper of Spanish America is published in Mexico, the "Gaceta de Mexico" 1729: Montevideo (Uruguay) is founded by Spaniards across from the Portuguese colony of Sacramento 1729: Diamonds are found in Minas Gerais 1731: Jose de Antoquera is arrested and executed in Paraguay 1739: Panama is added to Nueva Granada 1743: The university of Santiago is founded in Chile 1750: The treaty of Madrid recognizes Brazil's borders, and hands Sacramento to Spain in return for Jesuit missions (that have to be evacuated by the combined Spanish and Portuguese armies) 1759: The Jesuits are expelled from Brazil 1763: The seat of the viceroy of Brazil is moved from Bahia to Rio 1764: Cuba is made a seat of governorship, ruling over Louisiana 1765: Cuba begins an export boom of sugar 1767: The Jesuits are expelled from the Spanish empire, ending their 57 missions that counted 113,716 Indios 1767: The Franciscan friar Junipero Serra inherits the missions of Baja California when the Jesuits are expelled 1768: Gaspar de Portola is appointed governor of Las Californias 1769: Junipero Serra founds the mission of San Diego (California) 1770: Junipero Serra founds the mission of Montery (California) 1770: Buenos Aires has a population of 22,000, including 4,000 African slaves, thousands of free Africans, and an equal number of mestizos and Indios, which makes Buenos Aires the fourth largest Spanish city in South America (after Lima, Cuzco, Santiago) 1770: Port-au-Prince is chosen as the new capital of the colony of Saint-Domingue 1772: The state of Maranhao is incorporated into Brazil 1776: Spain creates the new viceroyalty of La Plata (Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia) under Pedro de Cevallos, with capital in Buenos Aires although most of the population lives in Bolivia, one fourth in Paraguay and only one fourth in Argentina and Uruguay 1776: Nueva Espana's explorer Juan Bautista de Anza reaches the site of future San Francisco map 1776     1777: Cevallos leads a Spanish incursion into Brazil that secures Sacramento (Uruguay) once and for all, and opens up Argentina to free trade, initiating Buenos Aires' boom 1777: Venezuela becomes a captaincy-general 1778: Chile becomes a captaincy-general 1779: Brazil founds the "Academia Real das Sciencias" 1780: Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui stages a revolt of the Indios in Peru 1783: The Indio rebellion is defeated in Peru 1788: Spain appoints Irish-born Ambrosio O'Higgins as governor of Chile in the viceroyalty of Peru 1789: Joaquim Jose da Silva Xavier "Tiradentes" leads a failed independence movement in Minas Gerais against Brazil                                                         1789: the English Privy Council concludes that almost 50% of the slaves exported from Africa die before reaching the Americas                                                                1790: at the height of the British slave trade, one slave vessel leaves England for Africa every other day 1791: African slaves led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines rebel in Haiti (the former French colony of Saint-Dominique), causing the collapse of the coffee economy 1791: The population of Chile is mostly made of mestizos (300,000 out of 500,000 people) 1791: Chile's governor Ambrosio O'Higgins outlaws the forced labor of the encomiendas 1791: Black revolt in Haiti against the white French elite, led by Toussaint L'Ouverture 1792: The French wars stimulate Brazil's exports 1793: Cuba opens the first public library of Spanish America 1795: Spain is forced to cede Santo Domingo (half of Hispaniola) to France, while slaves led by Toussaint Louvertur are staging an insurrection in Haiti (the other half) 1796: Spain appoints Ambrosio O'Higgins viceroy of Peru 1797: Britain conquers Trinidad from Spain 1798: The population of Brazil is three million, of which 50% are black slaves 1799: Brazil has produced about 80% of the world's gold during the 18th century (about 1,000 tons) 1800: Spain surrenders Louisiana to France 1800: There are 550,000 black slaves in Spanish America, notably 212,000 in Cuba, 88,000 each in Peru and Venezuela, and 70,000 in Colombia 1800: Peru's population has declined to one million from the five million of Inca Peru 1801: Spain deposes Peru's viceroy Ambrosio O'Higgins for his revolutionary leanings 1801: A constitution is adopted in Haiti, where there are virtually no whites left with Toussaint president for life 1802: France invades Haiti and deports Toussaint 1804: Haiti declares independence from France, the second colony after the USA to become independent in America, and the first black slave revolt to triumph against the white masters, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines becomes its "emperor", but no European or American country recognizes it 1805: The population of Mexico is 5.8 million 1806: Venezuelan hero Francisco Miranda fights against the Spanish government in Nueva Granada 1806: Rio is the largest city in Brazil with 50,000 people and most people live in the countryside (only 165,000 out of 3 million live in cities) 1806: British troops seize Buenos Aires (Argentina) from Spain 1806: Haiti's "emperor" Jean-Jacques Dessalines is overthrown by the army 1807: Local militiae expel the British from Buenos Aires (Argentina) 1807: The population of Brazil is 3.5 millions, of which 2 millions are African slaves and 500,000 are Indios 1807: Haiti splits in two                                                                                   1807:  In 1807 Britain outlawed slavery.                                                             1808: Napoleon's France invades Spain and Portugal 1808: The "Gazeta de Rio de Janeiro" is published in Brazil 1808: A popular insurrection returns Santo Domingo to Spain 1808: Dom Joao VI of Portugal moves the capital of Portugal to Rio in Brazil after Napoleon invades Portugal, and transforms Rio into one of the most modern capitals of Latin America                                                                                  1808 Tecumseh settled in the area of present-day Indiana with his brother Tenskwatawa, called "the Prophet" because he claimed to have had a revelation from the "Master of Life." There the brothers sought to induce the Indians to discard white customs and goods and to abjure intertribal wars for unity against the white invader. The code of the Prophet had a mysticism that appealed to the Indians, and many became converts... 1808: The viceroy of Nueva Espana declares independence from Napoleon's Spain 1810: The priest Miguel Hidalgo starts a rebellion against the viceroy of New Spain 1810: Criollos establish anti-Spanish juntas in Venezuela (april, Simon Bolivar), Argentina (may, Mariano Moreno), Nueva Granada/Colombia (july, Simon Bolivar), Ecuador (august), Chile (september, Bernardo O'Higgins), Sep 1810: Miguel Hidalgo leads a failed insurrection in Mexico in which thousands die May 1810: The viceroy of Argentina is ousted by a junta faithful to Ferdinando VII and Mariano Moreno assumes power Apr 1810: A junta including the creole Simon Bolivar in Venezuela begins an independence war against Napoleonic Spain 1810: Brazil signs a trade treaty with Britain that de facto grants Britain a monopoly in Brazil 1810: Buenos Aires has 50,000 people, the largest in Argentina 1811: The gaucho Jose Artigas starts a revolutionary movement in La Banda Oriental/Uruguay 1811: Nueva Grenada issues a constitution but civil war breaks up between the various parties 1811: Miguel Hidalgo is defeated and executed in Mexico Jul 1811: A congress led by Bolivar and Miranda declares the independence of Venezuela 1811: A junta led by Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia declares Paraguay's independence from Argentina                                                                         1811, while Tecumseh was in the South, William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, marched up the Wabash River and camped near the brothers' settlement. The Prophet unwisely attacked Harrison's camp and was so decisively defeated in the ensuing Battle of Tippecanoe that his followers dispersed, and he, having lost his prestige, fled to Canada and ceased to be a factor in Tecumseh's plans. ***** Battle of Tippecanoe, (Nov. 7, 1811), victory of a seasoned U.S. expeditionary force under Major General William Henry Harrison over Shawnee Indians led by Tecumseh's brother Laulewasikau (Tenskwatawa), known as the Prophet. The battle took place at Prophetstown, the Indian capital on the Tippecanoe River and the site of the present town of Battle Ground, near Lafayette, Ind. Harrison, who was on a mission to destroy the power of an intertribal defensive alliance being promoted by Tecumseh and his brother, repelled the Shawnee attack and burned the village. Discredited, Laulewasikau fled to Canada. 1811, the population of the New Orleans and its suburbs was about 25,000; nearly 11,000 were [enslaved persons], some 8,000 whites and about 6,000 [non-enslaved captifs] people of color. The [non-enslaved captifs] of color were mainly children of [enslavers] owners by African women, whom they raped. In the outlying parishes, [enslaved persons] made up an even greater proportion of the population. The fact that the [enslaving] owners were outnumbered by the [enslaved] increased the owners constant fear that the [enslaved persons] would revolt and overthrow their rule. The [enslaving] owners cultivated the [non-enslaved captifs] of color as a buffer against the [enslaved people] by giving them small privileges. In addition, a volunteer militia and regular troops patrolled the towns and [enslavement] quarters on plantations to keep the [enslaved people] in check.   [Enslaved people] were not allowed to freely practice their African languages and religions. Nor were they allowed to pursue other African customs! During the colonial time, the Roman Catholic Church was the state religion in French possessions. All other churches were suppressed. The [enslaved people] were compelled to be baptized. Since the Africans cherished their custom and ways of life, this led to conflict and rebellions. At the time of the 1811 uprising, French, Spanish and Anglo-American colonialist had already conquered most of the native inhabitants (these included the Choctaw, Houmas, Natchez, Tunica and others). Many were enslaved along with the Africans. Through the Louisiana Purchase (1803), France transferred its control of Louisiana to the U. S. A. From 1803 to 1812, the old colonial area known as Louisiana Province was divided in half. The northern area beginning at the present Arkansas border and extending to Canada was called the Louisiana Territory.   The southern part beginning at the Arkansas border and extending south to the Gulf of Mexico became Orleans Territory. New Orleans, the largest city in Orleans Territory, became the territorial capital and was technically ruled from Washington, D. C. In 1811, the economy of Orleans Territory was based on the cruel system of chattel slavery. Africans and Native Americans were considered property. At the top of society were a few rich [enslaving] owners and at the bottom were masses of [enslaved people]. Individual families and joint corporations owned [enslaved persons], among them were Bienville, Crozat, Pontalba, Kenner, Henderson, Destrehan, La Branche, Darensburg, Butler, Andry, Deslonde, Picou, McCarty, Dubbisson, and so forth. But one of the biggest [enslaving] owners was the Roman Catholic Church. The Jesuits, Capuchins and Ursulines had plantations run by [enslaved] labor and all three engaged in the [enslavement] trade. [Enslaved people] planted, cultivated and harvested the sugar cane. They hauled it to the mill (sugar house) and they processed it into crystals for the market. They delivered the sugar and molasses to the ships to take it to the markets.   The same was true for other corps. In the city of New Orleans, [enslaved persons] worked on the docks and the warehouses and commercial establishments. They were skilled craft workers as well—coopers, carpenters, bricklayers, hostlers, etc. The false and ugly theory of white supremacy placed the [enslaved person] in a totally subordinate and oppressed position which was enshrined in the law. [Enslaved people] had no political rights. They could not own property, nor could they have a voice in the affairs of the government. The punishment for attacking a white person, even in self-defense, or planning a rebellion was death.   The spirit of self-sacrifice for the cause of freedom and democracy has always been present in the history of the African American fight to end slavery. Nothing typifies this quality more than the mighty revolt of [enslaved persons] that took place in 1811 in St. John the Baptist, St. Charles and Orleans parishes of Louisiana. Though the brave uprising led by Nat Turner as well as the plots of Denmark Vesey and Gabriel Prosser are better known, the 1811 Revolt was the largest [enslaved people’s] uprising the history of the USA, involving over 500 people.   The Louisiana revolt was led by a man named Charles, a laborer on the Deslonde plantation. The revolt began some 50 or so miles up river from New Orleans. On the evening of January 8, the insurrection spread to the Andry plantation some 35 miles from New Orleans. At about 8 P. M. [enslaved persons] led by Charles and his lieutenants overwhelmed their oppressors. Armed with cane knives, hoes, clubs and few guns, the insurgents marched down the River Road toward New Orleans. They declared themselves free and rallied behind the chants (“On to New Orleans!’) and (“Freedom or Death”). Their numbers swelled as they moved from plantation to plantation on the East Bank of the Mississippi river, traversing about 25 miles (the distance between the present day towns of Reserve and Kenner).   The leaders were intent on creating an [enslaved persons] army, capturing the city of New Orleans, and seizing state power throughout the area. Following the example of the Haitian revolution, they sought to liberate the tens of thousands of [enslaved people] held in bondage in the territory of Louisiana. The [enslaved] rebels armed themselves as best they could with a few guns, cane knives, hoes and other farm implements. As their numbers swelled into the hundreds, they divided into companies, each with an officer. Some of the leaders were mounted on horseback. Arrayed in columns, with flags flying and drummers beating out a rhythm, they headed down the River Road. Their destination New Orleans, the territorial capital. Their guiding principle, (“Freedom or Death”]. The plantation of Louis-Augustin Meuillon was one of the larger estates in St. Charles Parish. An inventory made just months before the uprising lists 70 adult [enslaved persons] on the property.   Many [enslaved persons] on the Meuillon plantation joined the revolt and all but one supported it. An account published just after the revolt, lists two [enslaved persons] killed, nine in jail and two missing. Two of the jailed [enslaved persons], Apollon and Henri, were tortured to death. Only the [enslaved person] Bazile, 36 years old and a native of Louisiana, lifted a hand to try and put out the fire. After the revolt he was freed for the betrayal of his fellow [enslaved persons]. The solid Green line represents the route of the [enslaved] insurgents, led by Charles Deslonde. [Display map not included with this extract] The rebels moved down the River Road from the Andry plantation all the way to the Jacque Fortier plantation where they camped on the evening of January 9, 1811.   At about nine o’clock that evening, they were attacked by a force led by Major Derrington, made up of advanced elements of the U. S. militia, regular troops and merchant marine from New Orleans, represented by the solid Red line. [Display map not included with this extract] The attackers were repulsed and the rebels retreated to the sugarhouse. During the middle of the night, the rebels retreated upriver to the plantation of Bernard Bernoudy and encamped. The broken Red line represents the forces led by General Wade Hampton. [Display map not included with this extract] They left New Orleans in the afternoon of January 9 and arrived at the plantation of Jacque Fortier at the time of the attack by Major Derrington’s forces. The next day at about 9 A. M., Hampton led his forces and those of Derrington upriver to the Beroudy plantation. Meanwhile, on the evening of the 8, Manual Andry escaped from his plantation, crossed the river to the west bank and organized the militia). Despite the rebels’ best efforts, they were not able to succeed. They ran out of ammunition and could not match the well armed forces arrayed against them. Many leaders and participants were killed by U. S. troops (both militia and regular units. By January 19, the revolt was crushed. Some of the leaders were captured and executed. Their heads were cut off and placed on poles along the River Road and at the gates of the city of New Orleans. The [enslaving} owners hoped that this grim spectacle would terrorize the other [enslaved people] into submission.***   Some rebels were summarily executed when they were held for trial and most of these were executed in short order. In St. Charles Parish, the tribunal was composed of Jean Noel Destrehan, Alexandre Labranche, Cabaret, Adelard Fortier and Edmond Fortier, along with Pierre Bauchet St. Martin, acting as judge. Beginning at 4 P. M. on January 13, through January 15, they issued death warrants for a 21 [enslaved persons] for the crime of insurrection. These men were sentenced be shot by a militia detachment, each one in front of the residence to which he belonged. The tribunal decided that the heads of those executed would be cut off and put up on the end of a pike, at the place of execution, (“with the goal of making a terrible example”] for all who might in the future seek to win their freedom by force of arms. The sentences were carried out without delay. Condemned and executed in St. Charles Parish] CUPIDON of the Labranche Bros., DAGOBERT of Delhomme, Harry of Kenner & Henderson, JEAN of Arnauld, HIPPOLITE of Etienne Trepagnier, KOOCK of James Brown, EUGENE of Labranche Bros., CHARLES of Labranche Bros., QUAMANA of James Brown, ROBAINE of James Brown, ETIENNE of Trask, LOUIS of Etienne Trepagnier, JOSEPH of Etienne Trepagnier, GUIAM of Kenner & Henderson, ACARA of Delhommer, NEDE of Trask, AMAR of Wid. Charbonnet, SIMON of Butler & McCutchen, GROS LINDOR of Destrehan, PETIT LINDOR of Destrehan (St. Charles Parish Original Acts. Act 321, Book 1810-1811, p. 141-162) There was also a [enslaving] owners tribunal held in St. John the Baptist Parish, but few records exist. It is known that at least eight [enslaved persons] were executed on the orders of this panel headed by Judge Hoaud. Those martyred were: CHARLES, [enslaved] by Kenner and Henderson, LINDOR, [enslaved] by Kenner and Henderson, NONTOUN, [enslaved] by Kenner and Henderson, SMILLET, [enslaved] by Kenner and Henderson, LOUIS, [enslaved] by Daniel Madre Estate, PIERRE GRISSE, [enslaved] by Degruy, HANS, [enslaved] by George Weinprender, JACQUES, [enslaved] by Pierre Becknel. The Judge together with the Parish Jury impaneled to try the Prisoner Daniel Garret the [enslaved] of Messrs Butler and McCutcheon found him guilty of the charges as laid in the indictment and sentence him to Death—He shall be hung at the usual place in the City of New Orleans within three days from the date hereof and his head shall be severed from his Body and exposed at one of the lower gates of this city---New Orleans January 17 1811, (signed) Daniel Clark, Charles Jumonville Jacques Villere, J. Etienne Bore P. Dennis Laronde, Approved by L. Moreau Lislet, City Judge. (Louisiana Collection, New Orleans Public Library) In New Orleans, the captured [enslaved persons] were held in the jail on the lower level of the Cabildo and the tribunals were held on the second floor. Six [enslaving] owners sat in judgment of the reels. The court was in session from January 15 through the 18th and again on February 2, and issued death warrants for at least eight rebels. The [enslaving] owners on the tribunals included Louis LaBlanc, J. E. Bore, Daniel Clar, Peter Colssen, Stephen Henderson, Chas. Jumonville, Thomas Poree, P. Dennis LaRonde, James Villere, Jacques Villere, J. B. Labatut, and others. The judge was L. Moreau Lislet.   *** But they did not succeed. Again and again, in Louisiana, the [enslaved people] rose-up. They did not give up their fight. The sacrifices of these brave men and women were not in vain. They redeemed the honor of their people and extended the tradition of revolutionary struggle, which set the stage for the eventual end of chattel slavery. Their descendants proudly fought in the Union Army in the Civil War (1861-1865), which put an end to this horrendous system.   Leaders and rank and file maroons participated in the 1811 Revolt. Some of the [enslaved persons] executed after the 1811 rising were known to have been runaways before January 1811. Among them was SIMON from the plantation of Butler and McCutcheon (now known as Ormond). In the months before the revolt, the local and regional newspapers were filled with ads (in both French and English) offering rewards for the return of a runaway [enslaved]. This ad is for SIMON of the Butler and McCutcheon plantation. SIMON was eventually captured and executed in St. Charles Parish for his participation in the revolt.     20 DOLLARS REWARD RANAWAY from the sugar plantation of Richard Butler & Samuel McCutchon, on the second instant, a likely negro lad named SIMON, lately from Baltimore, about 20 years of age, 5 feet 6 or 7 inches height, has a scar on his left cheek, and one on his forehead, handsome features-:--had on when he went away, a tow linen shirt and trousers; black hat and sundry—other—apparel. It is supposed he will endeavor to get off in the shipping for the eastern states.—Ten dollars reward will be paid—if—taken within the county of Orleans; and twenty if out of the county, with all reasonable expenses if brought home, or delivered to Messr. Kenner and Henderson of New Orleans. Masters of vessels and others-are forbid harboring or taking off said run-away at their peril. July 4.Dec                                                                                                                1811: Jose Miguel Carrera seizes power in Chile 1811: Argentina is ruled by a triumvirate including Bernardino Rivadavia 1812: Argentinian general Manuel Belgrano defeats Spain at in the battle of Tucuman 1812: Britain exports more goods to Brazil than to all of Asia combined Mar 1812: Spain accepts a liberal constitution for Spanish America Jun 1812: Spain defeats Miranda in Venezuela   genealogy trail   1813: Colombian hero Antonio Narino fights against the Spanish government in Nueva Granada 1813: Hidalgo's follower Jose Maria Morelos draws a charter for Mexico's independence 1813: Ferdinand VII is restored king of Spain by British intervention 1813: Bolivar invades Venezuela from Nueva Grenada 1813: Argentina extends the vote to mestizos and indios, and outlaws torture, slavery and the Inquisition                                                                        1813 Oct. 5,  near Thames River, Upper Canada [now in Ontario, Can.]] also spelled TECUMTHE, TIKAMTHE, OR TECUMTHA Shawnee Indian chief, orator, military leader, and advocate of intertribal Indian alliance who directed Indian resistance to white rule in the Ohio River valley. In the War of 1812 he joined British forces for the capture of Detroit and the invasion of Ohio. A decisive battle against William Henry Harrison's U.S. troops ended in Tecumseh's defeat and death... Mar 1813: The viceroy of Peru launches an offensive against Chile Jan 1814: Bolivar is proclaimed dictator of Venezuela Mar 1814: Bernardo O'Higgins replaces Carrera as the leader of the Chilean rebels Sep 1814: Bolivar is defeated and expelled from Venezuela Sep 1814: Jose de San Martin is put in charge of Argentina's army Oct 1814: O'Higgins is defeated in Chile and flees to Argentina 1814: Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia is appointed dictator of Paraguay and creates an egalitarian society 1814: Britain occupies Guyana 1814: France returns Santo Domingo to Spain 1815: Jose Artigas controls all of La Banda Oriental/Uruguay with capital in Montevideo 1815: Ferdinand VII sends Spanish troops led by general Pablo Morillo to restore order in Nueva Grenada 1815: Jose Maria Morelos is executed in Mexico Dec 1815: Joao declares the "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves" Jan 1816: The Congress of Tucuman (shunned by Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia) proclaims the independence of the United Provinces of The Rio de la Plata (Argentina) with capital in Buenos Aires but local caudillos in the countryside resist the central government 1816: Colombia abolishes slavery 1816: Brazil invades Uruguay Dec 1816: With help from Haiti, Bolivas invades Venezuela's Orinoco region TM, ®, Copyright © 2008 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. Voyage 1, Pastora de Lima (1817) Ship, nation, owners Voyage identification number 1   Vessel name Pastora de Lima Flag Portugal Flag* Portugal / Brazil Place constructed Year constructed Place registered Year registered Rig Bergantim Tonnage Standardized tonnage* Guns mounted Vessel owners Voyage Outcome Particular outcome of voyage Sold slaves in Americas - subsequent fate unknown Outcome of voyage for slaves* Slaves disembarked in Americas Outcome of voyage if ship captured* Not captured Outcome of voyage for owner* Delivered slaves for original owners African resistance Voyage Itinerary Place where voyage began* Rio de Janeiro First place of slave purchase Mozambique Second place of slave purchase Third place of slave purchase Principal place of slave purchase* Mozambique Places of call before Atlantic crossing First place of slave landing Bahia, port unspecified Second place of slave landing Third place of slave landing Principal place of slave landing* Bahia, port unspecified Place where voyage ended Region where voyage began* Southeast Brazil First region of slave purchase Southeast Africa and Indian Ocean islands Second region of slave purchase Third region of slave purchase Principal region of slave purchase* Southeast Africa and Indian Ocean islands First region of slave landing Bahia Second region of slave landing Third region of slave landing Principal region of slave landing* Bahia Region where voyage ended Voyage Dates Year arrived with slaves* 1817 Date voyage began 1816-08-04 Date trade began in Africa Date vessel departed Africa Date vessel arrived with slaves 1817-01-16 Date vessel departed for home port Date voyage completed Voyage length, home port to slaves landing (days)* 165 Middle passage (days)* 56 Captain and Crew Captain's name Dias, Manoel José Crew at voyage outset Crew at first landing of slaves Crew deaths during voyage Slaves (numbers) Number of slaves intended at first place of purchase Slaves carried from first place of purchase Slaves carried from second place of purchase Slaves carried from third place of purchase Total slaves embarked Total slaves embarked* 404 Number of slaves arriving at first place of landing 290 Number of slaves disembarked at first place of landing Number of slaves disembarked at second place of landing Number of slaves disembarked at third place of landing Total slaves disembarked* 290 Slaves (characteristics) Percentage men* Percentage women* Percentage boys* Percentage girls* Percentage male* Percentage children* Sterling cash price in Jamaica* Slave deaths during middle passage* 114 Percentage of slaves embarked who died during voyage* 28.2% Source Sources PP,1845,XLIX:593-633: Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers: 1777, Accounts and Papers, No 9 1788, XXII 1789, XXIV, XXV, XXVI 1790, XXIX, XXX, XXXI 1790-91, XXXIV 1792, XXXV 1795-96, XLII 1798-99, XLVIII 1799 XLVIII 1801-2, IV 1803-4, X 1806, XII 1813-14, XII 1816, VII 1823, XIX 1825, XXVII, XXIX 1826, XXIX 1826-7, XXII, XXVI 1828, XXVI 1829, XXVI 1830, X 1831, XIX 1831-32, XLVII 1842, XLIV 1845,XLIX 1847-8, XXII 1852-3, XXXIX IDO,1817.02.07.: Idade de Ouro do Brasil GRJ,07/08/1816: Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro CapelaNotes: Capela, José, Archival notes on the slave trade from Mozambique. AHU,Moçambique,Cx 151 No 108: Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (Lisbon, Portugal) Feb 1817: O'Higgins defeats the Spanish troops at Chacabuco 1817: The USA helps Colombian revolutionaries against Spain 1817: Argentinian general Jose de San Martin crosses the Andes and invades Chile Feb 1818: Chile declares its independence from Spain, with O'Higgins as its first president May 1818: San Martin leads the Chilean troops to win a battle against the Spanish troops at Maipu 1818: Brazil has 3.8 million people, of which 2 million are blacks, 1 million white, 600,000 free mestizos and 200,000 indios Aug 1819: Bolivar defeats the Spanish at the battle of Boyaca Dec 1819: Gran Colombia (Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador) is born, with Bolivar as president Dec 1819: Buenos Aires writes a constitution but the other provinces of Argentina oppose it                                                                                                         1820 the king of the African kingdom of Ashanti inquired why the Christians did not want to trade slaves with him anymore, since they worshipped the same god as the Muslims and the Muslims were continuing the trade like before 1820: Troops under Jose de San Martin including many British volunteers under Thomas Cochrane invade Peru from Chile to liberate it from Spanish rule 1820: Sugar, cotton and the coffee are the main exports of Brazil 1820: Portugal defeats and exiles the gaucho caudillo Artigas, and Uruguay is reconquered by Brazil 1821: Uruguya is turned into the Provincia Cisplatina of the kingdom of Portugal and Brazil 1820: Haiti is reunited under Jean Boyer 1820: Argentina is devasted by civil war, and Juan Manuel de Rosas leads a regiment of gauchos (the "colorados") 1820: Jean-Pierre Boyer unifies Haiti and becomes its dictator Feb 1821: The creole Augustin de Iturbide and the mestizo Vicente Guerrero declare the independence of Nueva Espana, and declares a Mexican Empire (Mexico, California, Texas, Central America) Apr 1821: Dom Joao returns to Portugal and leaves his son Pedro as governor of Brazil Jul 1821: The viceroy of Nueva Espana resigns Sep 1821: The creole Augustin de Iturbide and the mestizo Vicente Guerrero enter Mexico City 1821: Guatemala declares its independence from Spain 1821: The USA citizen Moses Austin obtains Spain's permission to establish a colony of Anglosaxons in Texas 1821: Jose de San Martin liberates Lima from the Spaniards and declares Peru's independence 1821: The Congress of Cucuta declares the union of Venezuela and Colombia, abolishes slavery and choose a republican government under Simon Bolivar with Francisco Jose de Paula Santander as his vicepresident (and de facto ruler of Colombia) Jun 1821: Bolivar defeats the Spanish at Carabobo Jul 1821: San Martin enters Lima, but Spain still controls most of Peru 1821: The Dominican Republic (Spanish half of Hispaniola) declares its independence from Spain 1821: Bernardino Rivadavia dominates Argentinian politics, but Buenos Aires has little control over the "guacho" provinces 1822: Venezuela general Antonio Jose de Sucre defeats Spain at the Battle of Pichincha and, joining Bolivar, liberates Ecuador, where Bolivar and San Martin meet to decide the future of Peru and Ecuador Sep 1822: Pedro declares Brazil's independence 1822: Haiti invades the Dominican Republic 1822: Ecuador achieves independence from Spain Sep 1822: San Martin resigns in Peru Dec 1822: Pedro I, under pressure from the Brazilian scientist Jose Bonifacio, declares Brazil independent from Portugal and himself emperor 1822: Haiti's Jean Boyer coquers Santo Domingo from Spain 1823: Augustin de Iturbide is overthrown and the United Provinces of Central America secede from Mexico 1823: Bernardo O'Higgins is overthrown as president of Chile by general Ramon Freire opening a rift between conservatives and liberals 1823: Former regions of Nueva Espana (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua) declare the United Provinces of Central America 1823: Slavery is abolished in Chile 1823: Ramon Freire Serrano becomes president of Chile Sep 1823: Bolivar arrives in Lima 1823: The USA intervenes in defence of the Latin American states ("Monroe Doctrine") against the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia, France, Russia, Spain) that wants to restore the monarchies Mar 1824: Brazil enacts a constitution Aug 1824: Simon Bolivar defeats Spanish troops at the battle of Junin 1824: The USA becomes the first country to recognize the independence of Brazil 1824: Augustin de Iturbide tries to regain power in Mexico but is executed Oct 1824: A liberal constitution is enacted in Mexico, with the abolition of the Inquisition and of torture, and with Guadalupe Victoria as president 1824: Bernardino Rivadavia is forced to resign in Argentina Dec 1824: Simon Bolivar defeats Spanish troops at the battles of Ayachuco 1825: Upper Peru declares its independence from Argentina (United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata) and adopts the name Bolivia in honor of Simon Bolivar, with general Sucre as its dictator 1825: Venezuela's population is 700,000 1825: Uruguay (Banda Oriental) secedes from Brazil to join the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (Argentina), and Brazil declares war on Argentina 1825: Costa Rica begins to export coffee 1825: Portugal recognizes the independence of Brazil Jan 1826: The last Spanish garrison in Peru surrenders to Simon Bolivar 1826: Jose Antonio Paez leads a failed Venezuelan uprising against Gran Colombia 1826: There are ten independent countries in Latin America: Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Haiti, Paraguay, La Plata, Brazil, and the population of Latin America is about 20 million 1826: Bolivar organizes the Congress of Panama to promote Latin American union 1826: Portuguese king Joao dies and Brazil's emperor Pedro is forced by the Brazilians to renounce the throne of Portugal 1826: Bernardino Rivadavia drafts the Argentinian constitution and is reappointed president 1827: General Jose de La Mar becomes the first president of Peru 1827: There are five revolutions in one year in Chile 1827: A treaty grants special privileges to Britain in the trade with Brazil 1827: Diego Portales founds the Conservative Party in Chile Jul 1827: Bernardino Rivadavia is ousted in Argentina 1828: Bolivar declares himself dictator of Gran Colombia against the will of Santander who is forced into exile 1828: Peru invades Bolivia and Colombia declares war on Peru 1828: Brazil is defeated by Uruguay and Argentina at the Battle of Las Piedras, and Uruguay is granted independence under president Joaquin Suarez 1828: Vicente Guerrero loses Mexico's elections and rebels against the results 1829: Conservative minister Diego Portales becomes the most influential politician in Chile, winning the civil war against the liberals and subdueing the military 1829: Colombia and Bolivia win the war against Peru 1829: Bolivar's former general Andres de Santa Cruz, an indio, becomes dictator of Bolivia 1829: Cusco's general Agustin Gamarra becomes dictator of Peru Dec 1829: The gaucho Juan Manuel de Rosas becomes governor of Buenos Aires, the first representative from the provinces to obtain so much power in the country 1829: The Venezuelan writer Andres Bello, who has lived 20 years in Britain, relocates to Chile and promotes education and law 1829: Mexico abolishes slavery 1829: Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna defeats Guerrero and the conservative Anastasio Bustamante becomes president of Mexico 1830: Simon Bolivar leaves Bogota for exile and Venezuela (under Jose Antonio Paez) and Ecuador (under former Bolivar's Venezuelan-born general Juan Jose Flores) secede from Gran Colombia, Venezuela having lost more than 50% of its population (or 500,000 people) during the struggle from independence (1810-30) 1830: An overland trail is opened to Los Angeles that brings Anglosaxon colonists to Mexico's California 1830: Fructuoso Rivera, hero of the liberation war, is appointed president of Uruguay Apr 1831: Following popular protests ("Noite das Garrafadas"), Pedro I abdicates and leaves Brazil to his five-year old son Pedro II 1831: Slave insurrection in Jamaica 1831: Gran Colombia is renamed Nueva Grenada 1832: Santander returns from exile to rule Colombia/ Nueva Grenada 1832: Ecuador annexes the Galapagos islands 1832: Silver mines are discovered in Chile 1833: Britain invades the Malvinas/Falkland islands of Argentina 1833: Slavery is abolished in the British colonies, notably the sugar-producing islands 1833: Luis Jose de Orbegoso becomes president of Peru 1833: Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna is elected president of Mexico 1833: Chile proclaims a constitution, largely fashioned by the pro-clerical Portales that recognizes Catholicism as the state religion 1834: Slavery is abolished in Guyana 1834: Mexico's dictator Santa Anna abrogates the liberal constitution, and the liberal leader Lorenzo de Zavala exiles himself to Mexico promoting the cause of Texan independence 1834: After general Agust¡n Gamarra is deposed, Peru plunges into civil war Apr 1835: The gaucho Juan Manuel de Rosas is appointed dictator of Argentina 1835: Bolivia's dictator Santa Cruz conquers Peru after helping to quell an army rebellion against Peruvian president Lu¡s Jose de Orbegoso 1835: The "Guerra dos Farrapos" erupts in Brazil, pitting the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul against the Brazilian government, with Giuseppe Garibaldi supporting the farrapos 1835: Britain occupies the coast of Honduras (Belize) 1835: Manuel Oribe, a supporter of Argentina's dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, becomes president of Uruguay  [PM]  Paternal great-great grandmother Sinia Elizabeth Will aka (Sinia Elizabeth Powell)             Born January ca 1835 in Alabama . Sinia [SENA, SENIA, SINA] - seems to be an American invention found in both northern and southern states as early as the mid-1700's. It was frequently a nickname for Asenath, Lucinda, Serena, or similar names, but it was also used as a given name in its own right, especially in the 19th century. Variations: Cena, Cina, Cinia.] Sinia was brought into a life of servitude by her Caucasian relatives. [sic] Sinie (phonetically pronounced Si-ne) was part Native American and part Caucasian. Her mother being a Caucasian woman and her father a Native American. Sinia’s father as reported by the Census was from Maryland ; her mother’s place of birth is unknown although the 1900 Census records both parents from Alabama . Sinia’s mother was possibly a family member or an acquaintance of the Lewis M. Powell family a wealthy Alabama slaveholding family and one of the founding fathers of Marion , Louisiana . It was a Black family from the Powell slave chattel that raised her.              “A negro is necessarily a person of color; but not that a person of color is necessarily a negro”                  Although family lore identifies Sinia as part White and Native American, Sinia’s identity in the Federal Census is Black, a possible racial identity related to her adopted Black family and appearance. Her status as a slave comes from the partus sequitur ventrem rule. The partus sequitur ventrem rule made the offspring of a female slave, a slave, regardless of their color. (No slave could be White of course, so White slaves were classified as mulattos.) Since her picture reveals a Mulatto complexion woman, I have reviewed the Census for over thirty years and remain puzzled as to why she is recorded as (B) Black. The 1860 Slave Schedule and Free Inhabitants Census for Union Parish does not list a Mulatto woman of 24, 25 or 26 years of age with two female Mulatto children ages 5 and 3 years old (daughters Julia and Laura); to no avail could I find a match.  The 1870 Census taker George Rossetter a native of Farmerville and coming from a family of former slaveholders didn’t have a problem recognizing Mulattos slaves being he recorded Mulattos on the same Census identifying Sinia. During the 1870s and 1880s times were changing and the color line was shifting in many states in the direction of the one-drop rule a practice Southerners learned from Yankees. Meaning regardless of physical appearance if there were any Black parent ancestors at all, much-less one-eighth, you were black. This rule was not adopted by every state; but the rule surrounding physical appearance was the criterion Louisiana used for determining a person’s group membership. During the post-war era 1870-1880, Louisiana was struggling to preserve its biracial French culture. The Colored Creole society was crushed out of existence by it being merged with freed Blacks. Louisiana used appearance rather than parents as a criteria for race determination because it was an easier identifier but not exact. Sinia was an example of this criteria being applied. Her appearance was considered Black rather than White because of her complexion. There was no physical appearance of Native American ancestry. Once it caught on, the color line and one drop rule was adopted by every state and was in continuous use even by the courts of America into the 1900s. The 1900 Census –the last Census Sinia was in- provided an ethnic selection of (In) Indian for identification, but it too was never used because of the color line. Sinia as well as her adult children during the 1900 Census continued to be identified as (B) Black. Sinia, if she was of Indian and Caucasian heritage may have preferred regardless of the color line to identify her children as Black, being the children’s father was Black as well as their community of family and friends.  Sinia arrived in Union Parish around 1842 and William around 1844. It is reported that they were both free inhabitants; but there are no Federal Censuses that identifies Sinia, William, their families or adjacent neighborhood Black friends as free inhabitants in Marion or the surrounding Parish in 1860. (View 1860 Federal Census for Louisiana, Union Parish, Unknown Township, Slides 141 to 169.) Sinia and William were in their twenties when they met around 1852 while working on adjacent farms in south Marion . After a short courtship Sinia and William united in the slave traditional matrimony. Around 1855 Sinia and William had their first child, a daughter named Julia. Sinia’s and William’s marriage isn’t registered in the Farmerville’s Courthouse because previous to1865 it was against the law for slaves to marry. The Southern legal system never recognized slave marriages on the grounds that property could not enter into a legal contract; but in the eyes of the Lord and the slave tradition of jumping the broom their marriage was solidified. From this union as with other slaves’ they immediately started a family. 1836: Mexico's dictator Santa Anna crushes a Texan uprising at the battle of the Alamo (San Antonio), but general Sam Houston defeats the Spanish and Texas declares its independence 1836: Chile fights a war against Peru and Bolivia 1836: Jose Vicente Rocafuerte Rodriguez becomes president of Ecuador Dec 1836: Mexico enacts a new constitution 1837: Portales, most influential politician of Chile (although never its president), is murdered in an attempted military coup 1837: Bustamante is elected president of Mexico 1837: The liberal Jose Ignacio de Marquez is elected president of Colombia/ Nueva Grenada 1837: Argentinian intellectuals led by poet Echeverria found the Asociacion de Mayo to fight the dictator Rosas (including Bartolome Mitre and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento) 1838: The United Provinces of Central America is dissolved, making Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua independent 1838: France bombards Mexico in the "Guerra de los Pasteles" but Santa Anna defeats them 1838: Rivera deposes Manuel Oribe in Uruguay, and Oribe's "Blancos" start a civil war against Rivera's "Colorados" 1838: Juan Pablo Duarte founds a secret society to find for the independence of the Dominican Republic 1838: Brazil imports 46,000 African slaves in just one year 1838: The indio pro-clerical Rafael Carrera seizes power in Guatemala and imposes a ruthless dictatorship 1839: The Uruguayan Civil War ("Guerra Grande") erupts between the liberal "colorados" of Montevideo (supported by France, Britain, Brazil and liberal Argentinians) and the conservative "blancos" of Cerrito (supported by Argentina's dictator Rosas) 1839: Chile defeats Peru and Bolivia, forces the dissolution of the union between the two countries, ends the career of Bolivia's dictator Santa Cruz and allows Agust¡n Gamarra to seize power in Peru 1839: Regional leaders try to overthrow Colombia's president Marquez ("Guerra de los Supremos") 1840: Francia dies and Paraguay elects two consuls, one being Carlos Antonio Lopez 1840: Peru begins to develop the deposits of guano on a mass scale, leading to an economic boom 1840: Sao Paulo has become the biggest producer of coffee, which has passed sugar and cotton as Brazil's main export, shifting the economic center of mass towards the south 1840: Chile's first steamship starts running (made in the USA) 1841: Jose Ballivian becomes president of Bolivia 1841: Santa Anna seizes power again in Mexico 1841: The general Manuel Bulnes, hero of the war against Bolivia, is appointed president of Chile, presiding over a period of peace and prosperity 1841: Peru and Bolivian go at war and Peru's dictator Gamarra is killed at the Battle of Ingavi 1841: Pedro appoints the Conservative Party to form a government in Brazil 1842: Garibaldi leads an Italian legion for the "colorados" in the Guerra Grande in Uruguay 1842: The University of Chile is established 1842: The University of Chile opens with Andres Bello as its first president 1842: Peru and Bolivian sign a peace treaty 1843: Venezuela is ruled by general Carlos Soublette, a follower of Paez who grants civil liberties 1843: Former president Joaquin Suarez succeeds Fructuoso Rivera in Uruguay while Manuel Oribe lays siege to Montevideo (for eight years) 1843: Jean-Pierre Boyer is overthrown in Haiti and Santo Domingo is separated again from Haiti 1844: Carlos Antonio Lopez becomes dictator of Paraguay 1844: Pedro appoints the Liberal Party to form a government in Brazil 1844: Santa Anna is overthrown in Mexico and exiled to Spanish Cuba 1844: The Dominican Republic declares its independence from Haiti 1845: The farrapos surrender in Brazil 1845: Jose Herrera becomes president of Mexico Dec 1845: Texas is annexed by the USA 1845: Ramon Castilla becomes dictator of Peru 1845: The general Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera is elected president of Colombia/ Nueva Grenada 1845: British ships are authorized to search Brazilian ships for slaves in order to enforce the end of the slave trade Sep 1845: Britain and France enforce a blockade of Buenos Aires to defend Uruguay 1845: Ecuador's dictator Flores is overthrown by the Liberals Jan 1846: Jose Herrera is deposed and general Mariano Paredes is appointed president of Mexico Apr 1846: The USA provokes a war with Mexico 1846: One fifth of the population of San Francisco is Anglosaxon immigrants 1846: Britain adopts free trade, which puts the sugar-producing islands at a disadvantage against slave-operated plantations in Cuba and Brazil 1847: Paez replaces Soublette with Jose Tadeo Monagas as Venezuela's president, but Monagas declares himself dictator 1847: Benito Juarez, a Zapotec indio, becomes the governor of Oaxaca in Mexico, and the mestizo Porfirio Diaz becomes his right-hand man 1847: A conference in Lima of Latin American countries foils an attempt by former Ecuador's dictator Flores to bring the West Coast of South America under the rule of Spains' queen Isabella II 1847: The indios of Yucatan rebel against the elite class in the "Caste War" of Mexico Sep 1847: The USA reach Mexico City Feb 1848: At the end of the Mexican war (treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo), the USA acquires New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah and California (almost half of Mexico's territory) 1848: Manuel Isidoro Belzu becomes dictator of Bolivia 1848: Britain and France end the blockade of Buenos Aires in Argentina 1848: Brazil imports 60,000 African slaves in just one year 1849: Paez attemps a coup against Monagas, but is arrested and exiled 1849: Juan Rafael Mora becomes president of Costa Rica 1849: Pedro appoints the Conservative Party to form a government in Brazil 1849: The liberal Jose Hilario Lopez becomes president of Colombia 1849: The Partido Liberal is formed in Chile 1850: At the end of the "Caste War" the population of Mexico's Yucatan has declined by 40% 1850: Latin America's population is 33 million 1851: A military coup installs general Jose Maria Urbina as dictator of Ecuador, handing the power to the liberals from Guayaquil 1851: Cattle products account for 78% of Argentina's exports 1851: Colombia abolishes slavery 1851: The conservative Manuel Montt becomes the first civilian president of Chile, but has to suppress violent protests by liberals who denounce the rigged elections, killing thousands of people 1851: Manuel Oribe's "Blancos" of the "Partido Nacional" are defeated in Uruguay by the "Colorados" 1851: Justo Jose de Urquiza, governor of Entre Rios, declares Entre Rios independent from Argentina, and joins an alliance with Brazil and Uruguay against Argentine-supported Oribe 1852: Urbina of Ecuador expels the Jesuits and abolishes slavery 1852: Slavery is abolished in Uruguay Feb 1852: The civil war in Uruguay ends with the victory of the "colorados" (supported by Brazil and by Argentinian rebels led by general Justo Jose de Urquiza) and the overthrow of Argentine's dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas by Justo Jose de Urquiza May 1852: The "Pact of San Nicolas" appoints Urquiza head of Argentina, while his opponent Bartolome Mitre goes into exile 1853: The United Provinces of Central America adopts a constitution under Urquiza and the name Argentina, but Buenos Aires de facto secedes and the capital moves to Parana Jun 1853: Santa Anna is appointed again dictator of Mexico, drives to exile both Benito Juarez and Melchor Ocampo of Michoacan 1853: Peru annexes a piece of Amazon forest claimed by Ecuador 1853: A new constitution in Colombia grants state great autonomy May 1854: The Mexican liberals led by the illiterate indio guerrillero Juan Alvarez and by Ignacio Commonfort proclaim the "Plan de Ayutla" against Santa Anna 1855: The USA builds the Panama railway 1855: Manuel Isidoro Belzu appoints general Jorge Cordova to be his successor Jul 1855: Benito Juarez returns to Mexico from his USA exile Aug 1855: Santa Anna is forced to leave Mexico 1855: The USA adventurer William Walker conquers Nicaragua and appoints himself president Nov 1855: Alvarez enters Mexico City as the new president and forms a government that includes Benito Juarez and Melchor Ocampo Dec 1855: Alvarez resigns and is replaced by Ignacio Comonfort 1856: Ecuador's Urbina appoints general Francisco Robles as his successor but remains de facto in power 1856: Gabriel Antonio Pereira, of the "Partido Nacional", becomes president of Uruguay 1857: Jose Maria Linares becomes dictator of Bolivia Feb 1857: Mexico proclaims a new liberal and anticlerical constitution, largely drawn by Benito Juarez Dec 1857: Mexican general Felix Zuloaga stages a coup against Comonfort and Juarez, starting the "Guerra de Reforma/ War of the Reform" May 1858: Benito Juarez, a Zapotec indio, is elected president of Mexico by the liberals in Veracruz 1858: Colombia/ Nueva Grenada adopts the name Granadine Confederation 1858: A military coup removes Monagas and installs Paez again as president of Venezuela 1859: Mexico passes a law expropriating the Church of all its lands (but the beneficiaries are mostly foreigners and rich Mexicans), starting a civil war 1859: Peru occupies the southern provinces of Ecuador Oct 1859: Urquiza defeats the militia of Buenos Aires led by Bartolome Mitre at the battle of Cepeda and forces Buenos Aires to reenter the federation of Argentina 1860: Gabriel Garcia Moreno, representing the conservatives from Quito, allies with Flores to restore order in Ecuador and becomes the new dictator, fostering education and road building and restoring the influence of the Catholic Church ("virtue, faith and order") Mar 1860: Santiago Derqui from Cordoba becomes president of the reunited Argentina 1860: William Walker is executed in Nicaragua 1860: Bernardo Berro of the "Partido Nacional" is elected president of Uruguay 1860: Juarez restores order in Mexico 1860: Peru enacts its 15th constitution 1860: The Liberal Party wins the elections in Brazil (but only about 1% of the population is entitled to vote) 1860   State: Louisiana   County: Union   Page No: 1 Reel no: T655-22   Division: none given Enumerated by: A. C. Wade Transcribed by T. D. Hudson for USGenWeb. Copyright: 2004 =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|      |   NAME OF EVERY PERSON  |      | S |MARRIED| PLACE | MONTH     | PROFESSION, |   DISEASE         |  NUMBER       | REMARKS        | LINE |   WHO DIED DURING THE   |  AGE | E |  OR   |   OF  |   OF      | OCCUPATION, |   OR CAUSE        |    OF         | ADDED BY       |       | YEAR ENDING 1 JUNE 1860 |      | X |WIDOWED| BIRTH | DEATH     |   OR TRADE  |   OF DEATH        | DAYS ILL      | TRANSCRIBER    | =====|=========================|======|===|=======|=======|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|   1  | W. L. Moore             |   5  | m |       |   La  | Mar 1860  |             | congestion        |  5            |   2  | Harmon Smith            |  48  | m |   m   |   SC  | May 1860  |    Farmer   | accidentally      | Instantaneous |   3  | C. J. P. Smith          |   8  | m |       |   SC  | Dec 1859  |             | accidentally      | Instantaneous |   4  | Savannah Dendy          |   4  | m |       |   La  | June 1859 |             | Scarlet Fever     | 20            |   5  | J. M. Heard             |  58  | m |   m   |   Ga  | Dec 1859  |    Farmer   | Intemperance      |  1            |   6  | C. T. Mitchell          |3 mos.| m |       |   La  | July 1859 |             | Consumption       |  7            |   7  | [slave]                 |  22  | m |   m   |       | June 1859 |             | Fever             |  1            |   8  | [slave]                 |  40  | f |   W   |       | Sept 1859 |             | Complicated       |  4            |   9  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       | June 1859 |             | Fever             | 10            | 10  | [slave]                 |3 mos.| f |       |       | May 1860  |             | Complicated       | 30            | 11  | [slave]                 |   9  | m |       |       | Jan 1860  |             | Disease Heart     |120            | 12  | [slave]                 |4 mos.| m |       |       | May 1860  |             | Hives             | 10            | 13  | Wm. Sutton              |  36  | m |   W   |  Ala  | Mar 1860  |    Farmer   | Consumption       | 30            | 14  | [slave]                 |4 mos.| m |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | accidentally      | Instantaneous | 15  | [slave]                 |3 mos.| m |       |       | June 1859 |             | accidentally      | Instantaneous | 16  | [slave]                 |   1  | f |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | unknown           | Instantaneous | 17  | [slave]                 |2 mos.| f |       |       | Feb 1860  |             | unknown           |  6            | 18  | W. J. Oxford            |   2  | m |       |   La  | Feb 1860  |             | Pneumonia         | 15            | 19  | [slave]                 |9 mos.| m |       |       | Jan 1860  |             | Cholera Infantum  | 14            | 20  | [slave]                 |9 mos.| f |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | unknown           |  2            | 21  | [white infant-no name   |3 mos.| m |       |   La  | Feb 1860  |             | Inflamation Brain |  3            | 22  | [slave]                 |   9  | f |       |       | Jan 1860  |             | Dropsy            | 60            | 23  | [slave]                 |   1  | f |       |       | Sept 1859 |             | Diarreah          |  4            | 24  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | Diarreah          |  4            | 25  | Geo. Silman             |   4  | m |       |   La  | May 1860  |             | Inflamation Stoma |  6            | 26  | Peter Silman            |7 mos.| m |       |   La  | May 1860  |             | Bowels            |  3            | 27  | Suzan A. Ball           |  56  | f |   m   |   Va  | June 1859 |             | Inflamation Brain |  3            | 28  | F. L. Colvin            |   2  | f |       |   La  | Oct 1859  |             | accident          | Instantaneous | 29  | S. F. Alford            |   5  | f |       |   La  | Dec 1859  |             | accident Burns    |  2            | 30  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       | June 1859 |             | Flux              | 14            | 31  | [slave]                 |   3  | f |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Scarlet Fever     |  9            | 32  | [slave]                 |7 mos.| m |       |       | May 1860  |             | Typhoid Fever     | 13            | 33  | Wm. C. Wallsworth       |   4  | m |       |   La  | Apr 1860  |             | Flux              |  2            | 34  | R. F. Wallsworth        |   2  | m |       |   La  | Apr 1860  |             | Flux              | 10            | 35  | H. Rule                 |   9  | m |       |  Ark  | Mar 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |  7            | =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================| Year: 1860   State: Louisiana   County: Union   Page No: 2 Reel no: T655-22   Division: none given Enumerated by: A. C. Wade Transcribed by T. D. Hudson for USGenWeb. Copyright: 2004 =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|      |   NAME OF EVERY PERSON  |      | S |MARRIED| PLACE | MONTH     | PROFESSION, |   DISEASE         |  NUMBER       | REMARKS        | LINE |   WHO DIED DURING THE   |  AGE | E |  OR   |   OF  |   OF      | OCCUPATION, |   OR CAUSE        |    OF         | ADDED BY       |       | YEAR ENDING 1 JUNE 1860 |      | X |WIDOWED| BIRTH | DEATH     |   OR TRADE  |   OF DEATH        | DAYS ILL      | TRANSCRIBER    | =====|=========================|======|===|=======|=======|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|   1  | Elias Carter            |  11  | m |       |   La  | Sept 1859 |             | Congestion        |  12           |   2  | Mary Lack               |  39  | f |   m   | Miss  | Apr 1860  |             | Dropsy Heart      |  40           |   3  | M. J. Anderson          |6 mos.| f |       |   La  | May 1860  |             | Fits              |   2           |   4  | [slave]                 |5 mos.| m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Sore throat       |   2           |   5  | [slave]                 |  40  | m |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | Pneumonia         |  12           |   6  | [slave]                 |  10  | m |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | Pneumonia         |  12           |   7  | [slave]                 |   2  | m |       |       | Sept 1859 |             | Flux              |   5           |   8  | Alfred Honeycutt        |   2  | m |       |   La  | Sept 1859 |             | Flux              |   9           |   9  | G. E. Hodge             |  70  | m |   m   |   Ga  | Apr 1860  |             | Consumption       | 180           | 10  | G. A. H. A. Kelly       |   3  | f |       |   La  | July 1859 |             | Brain Fever       |   5           | 11  | [slave]                 |8 mos.| m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Pneumonia         |   4           | 12  | [slave]                 |  45  | f |       |       | Feb 1860  |             | accident          | instantaneous | 13  | Elizabeth Hilburn       |  24  | f |   m   |  Ala  | Nov 1859  |             | Flux              |  20           | 14  | N. J. McFarland         |1 mo. | f |       |       | Jan 1860  |             | Thrash            |   8           | 15  | [slave]                 |   2  | m |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | accident          |   1           | 16  | Adam Skeins             |  61  | m |   m   |   SC  | Mar 1860  |             | Murdered          | instantaneous | 17  | [slave]                 |  80  | m |       |       | Sept 1859 |             | Rhumatism         | 200           | 18  | L. G. Henderson         |  30  | m |       |  Ala  | Mar 1860  |             | Consumption       |  60           | 19  | Jane Henderson          |  26  | f |   m   |   La  | Aug 1859  |             | Fever             |   8           | 20  | [slave]                 |8 mos.| m |       |       | May 1860  |             | sore throat       |   7           | 21  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       | June 1859 |             | sore throat       |   7           | 22  | Wm. McCullum            |  42  | m |   m   |  Ala  | June 1859 | Farmer      | Intemperance      |   4           | 23  | Elizabeth Solly         |  60  | f |   W   |  Ala  | Mar 1860  |             | Dropsy Heart      |  30           | 24  | J. A. Davis             |  35  | m |   W   |  Ark  | June 1859 | Farmer      | Intemperance      | instantaneous | 25  | A. Seals                |2 mos.| f |       |   La  | Nov 1859  |             | Whooping Cough    |   7           | 26  | [slave]                 |  50  | m |       |       | Jan 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |   7           | 27  | [slave]                 |   3  | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Flux              |   7           | 28  | Isabella Rugg           |   3  | f |       |   La  | July 1859 |             | Brain Fever       |   5           | 29  | S. H. Hicks             |   3  | f |       |   La  | May 1860  |             | Flux              |   1           | 30  | Geor. Taylor            |   7  | m |       |   La  | Mar 1860  |             | Congestion        |   6           | 31  | G. A. Awls              |  20  | f |       |   Ga  | Apr 1860  |             | Cold              |  14           | 32  | [slave]                 |  75  | f |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Canser            | 365           | 33  | [slave]                 |  17  | f |       |       | June 1859 |             | Congestion        |   5           | 34  | [slave]                 |  12  | f |       |       | Feb 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |  18           | 35  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | Fever             |   7           | =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================| Year: 1860   State: Louisiana   County: Union   Page No: 3 Reel no: T655-22   Division: none given Enumerated by: A. C. Wade Transcribed by T. D. Hudson for USGenWeb. Copyright: 2004 =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|      |   NAME OF EVERY PERSON  |      | S |MARRIED| PLACE | MONTH     | PROFESSION, |   DISEASE         |  NUMBER       | REMARKS        | LINE |   WHO DIED DURING THE   |  AGE | E |  OR   |   OF  |   OF      | OCCUPATION, |   OR CAUSE        |    OF         | ADDED BY       |       | YEAR ENDING 1 JUNE 1860 |      | X |WIDOWED| BIRTH | DEATH     |   OR TRADE  |   OF DEATH        | DAYS ILL      | TRANSCRIBER    | =====|=========================|======|===|=======|=======|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|   1  | [slave]                 |  30  | f |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |   5           |   2  | [slave]                 |   6  | m |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | Drowned           | Instantaneous |   3  | [slave]                 |  30  | m |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Complicated       | 300           |   4  | [slave]                 |  40  | f |       |       | June 1859 |             | consumption       |  21           |   5  | [slave]                 |  15  | f |       |       | May 1860  |             | Typhoid Fever     |  10           |   6  | G. Townsend             |   1  | m |       |   La  | Jan 1859  |             | Hives             |   3           |   7  | [slave]                 |   4  | m |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Inflamation       |   3           |   8  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Inflamation       |   3           |   9  | [slave]                 |  18  | f |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |   7           | 10  | [slave]                 |6 mos | m |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |   1           | 11  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       |   ---     |             | Pneumonia         |  12           | 12  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       |   ---     |             | Scarlet Fever     |  10           | 13  | [slave]                 |   1  | f |               |   ---     |             | Hives             |   2           | 14  | [slave]                 |  12  | f |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | Complicated       |  30           | 15  | [slave]                 |   6  | m |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | Cold              |   3           | 16  | Dan Abbott              |   4  | m |       |   La  | Aug 1859  |             | Fever             |   8           | 17  | [slave]                 |6 mos | f |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | Cold              |   1           | 18  | white boy - no name list|   4  | m |       |   La  | Aug 1859  |             | Fever             |   8           | 19  | E. Webb                 |  20  | f |       |  Ala  | Apr 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |  15           | 20  | [slave]                 |  83  | f |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Fever             |   6           | 21  | [slave]                 |  18  | f |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Burn              | instantly     | 22  | S. B. Williams          |  34  | f |       |  Ala  | Apr 1860  |             | inflamation       |   5           | 23  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       | Feb 1860  |             | Worms             | 360           | 24  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Fever             |   5           | 25  | S. P. Taylor            |  15  | m |       |   La  | Mar 1860  |             | Tumor             | 360           | 26  | V. Taylor               |   1  | f |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Croup             |   5           | 27  | S. Fowler               |  70  | f |       |   NC  | Nov 1859  |             | Pneumonia         |   7           | 28  | Wm. Funderburk          |  18  | m |       |  Ark  | Dec 1859  |             | Pneumonia         |  42           | 29  | Jinny Baker             |   9  | f |       |   La  | Oct 1859  |             | Fever             |  14           | 30  | [slave]                 |   6  | f |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Congestion        |   1           | 31  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Congestion        |   1           | 32  | W. A. Smith             |   9  | m |       |  Ala  | June 1859 |             | Congestion        |   1           | 33  | [infant] Solomon        |6 mos | m |       |   La  | Oct 1859  |             | Unknown           |   3           | 34  | [slave]                 |  65  | m |       |       | Feb 1860  |             | Pneumonia         | 121           | 35  | [slave]                 | 1 mo | m |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Hives             |   3           | =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================| Year: 1860   State: Louisiana   County: Union   Page No: 4 Reel no: T655-22   Division: none given Enumerated by: A. C. Wade Transcribed by T. D. Hudson for USGenWeb. Copyright: 2004 =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|      |   NAME OF EVERY PERSON  |      | S |MARRIED| PLACE | MONTH     | PROFESSION, |   DISEASE         |  NUMBER       | REMARKS        | LINE |   WHO DIED DURING THE   |  AGE | E |  OR   |   OF  |   OF      | OCCUPATION, |   OR CAUSE        |    OF         | ADDED BY       |       | YEAR ENDING 1 JUNE 1860 |      | X |WIDOWED| BIRTH | DEATH     |   OR TRADE  |   OF DEATH        | DAYS ILL      | TRANSCRIBER    | =====|=========================|======|===|=======|=======|===========|=============|===================|===============|================|   1  | I. A. Ham               |  32  | f |   m   |  Ala  | May 1860  |             | Inflamation       | 360           |   2  | A. E. Ham               |   4  | f |       |   La  | June 1859 |             | Congestion        |   2           |   3  | W. S. Gilbert           |  30  | m |   m   |  Ala  | Dec 1859  |    M.D.     | Complicated       |  18           |   4  | P. G. Gilbert           |  46  | f |   w   |  Ala  | Dec 1859  |   Farmer    | Inflamation       |   8           |   5  | [slave]                 |  22  | f |       |       | Nov 1859  |             | Burn              | 120           |   6  | [slave]                 |  18  | f |       |       | July 1859 |             | Congestion        |   7           |   7  | R. Rusbury              |  65  | f |   m   |   SC  | Mar 1860  |             | Typhoid Fever     |  25           |   8  | L. A. Johnson           |   2  | m |       |   La  | Oct 1859  |             | Fever             |   6           |   9  | Jno. Smith              |  21  | m |       |   Ga  | Aug 1859  | Day Laborer | Pneumonia         |  14           | 10  | S. P. Vise              |  17  | m |       |  Ala  | Apr 1860  | Day Laborer | Pneumonia         |  11           | 11  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Worms             |   1           | 12  | A. M. McCuller          |   3  | m |       |   La  | June 1859 |             | Sunstroke         |   8           | 13  | [slave]                 |6 mos | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Unknown           |   2           | 14  | A. Gaskill              |  36  | m |       |  Tenn | Dec 1859  |             | Suicide           | instantaneous | 15  | M. T. Crow              |  50  | m |       |   Ga  | Feb 1860  |   Farmer    | Pneumonia         |   8           | 16  | Jno Mathis              |  70  | m |       |   SC  | Oct 1859  |   Farmer    | Typhoid Fever     |  30           | 17  | [slave]                 |   8  | f |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Fever             |   2           | 18  | Fidelia Lowe            |  28  | f |       |   Va  | Jan 1860  |             | Consumption       |  30           | 19  | Jno. Lee                |  18  | m |       |  Ala  | Nov 1859  |   Farmer    | Pneumonia         |   7           | 20  | T. H. Foster            |   9  | m |       |   Ga  | Sept 1859 |             | Congestive Chill  |   4           | 21  | F. McFadin              |  41  | m |       |   Ky  | Aug 1859  |   Farmer    | Typhoid Fever     |  35           | 22  | W. Holland              |  63  | m |       |   Ga  | Apr 1860  |   Farmer    | Pneumonia         |   4           | 23  | Civility Holland        |  64  | f |       |   Ga  | Apr 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |   4           | 24  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       | July 1859 |             | Fever             |   5           | 25  | [slave]                 |   2  | m |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Fever             |  10           | 26  | [slave]                 |6 mos | m |       |       | Dec 1859  |             | Fever             |   7           | 27  | D. Pucket               |  44  | m |       |   SC  | Aug 1859  |    Atty     | intemperance      |   4           | 28  | M. A. Holemon           |  25  | f |       |   Ga  | June 1859 |             | Typhoid Fever     |  13           | 29  | [slave]                 |  20  | f |       |       | Jan 1860  |             | Typhoid Fever     |  20           | 30  | A. G. Alford            | 12(?)| f |       |   Ga  | Mar 1860  |             | Typhoid Fever     |   2           | 31  | B. T. Spur              |   1  | m |       |  Ala  | June 1859 |             | Typhoid Fever     | 300           | 32  | [slave]                 |   1  | f |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | Unknown           | 100           | 33  | [slave]                 |6 mos | m |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Unknown           |  60           | 34  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Unknown           |  30           | 35  | H. Rone                 |  24  | m |       |  Ala  | Aug 1859  |             | Pneumonia         |  10           | =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|===============|================| Year: 1860   State: Louisiana   County: Union   Page No: 5 Reel no: T655-22   Division: none given Enumerated by: A. C. Wade Transcribed by T. D. Hudson for USGenWeb. Copyright: 2004 =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|==========|================|      |   NAME OF EVERY PERSON  |      | S |MARRIED| PLACE | MONTH     | PROFESSION, |   DISEASE         |  NUMBER  | REMARKS        | LINE |   WHO DIED DURING THE   |  AGE | E |  OR   |   OF  |   OF      | OCCUPATION, |   OR CAUSE        |    OF    | ADDED BY       |       | YEAR ENDING 1 JUNE 1860 |      | X |WIDOWED| BIRTH | DEATH     |   OR TRADE  |   OF DEATH        | DAYS ILL | TRANSCRIBER    | =====|=========================|======|===|=======|=======|===========|=============|===================|==========|================|   1  | H. M. Barret            |  26  | m |       |   Vt  | May 1860  |    Atty     | measles           | 15       |   2  | Sarah Callaway          |   1  | f |       |   La  | June 1859 |             | Unknown           | 10       |   3  | [slave]                 |   1  |---|       |       | Sept 1859 |             | Cholia            |  1       |   4  | Jno. T. Underwood       |   3  | m |       |   La  | July 1859 |             | Brain Fever       |  4       |   5  | [slave]                 |   5  | f |       |       | Sept 1859 |             | Unknown           |  2       |   6  | [slave]                 |   2  | m |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Unknown           |  10      |   7  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | May 1860  |             | Dropsy            |  30      |   8  | A. M. Tignor            |   2  | f |       |   La  | July 1859 |             | Congestive Chill  |  1       |   9  | [slave]                 |   2  | m |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Brain Fever       |  7       | 10  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | accidentally      |  1       | 11  | [slave]                 |7 mos | f |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Complex           |  20      | 12  | [slave]                 |  22  | m |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | inflamation       |  5       | 13  | [slave]                 |   5  | f |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | inflamation       |  6       | 14  | [slave]                 |  16  | f |       |       | Feb 1860  |             | Labour            |  3       | 15  | [slave]                 |   1  | f |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | Fits              |  1       | 16  | [slave]                 |3 mos | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Pneumonia         |  10      | 17  | [slave]                 |2 mos | f |       |       | June 1859 |             | Pneumonia         |  10      | 18  | Jno. E. Kitchens        |5 mos | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | inflamation       |  1       | 19  | G. A. Davis             |  48  | m |   m   |    NC | Feb 1860  |   Farmer    | Influenza         |  2       | 20  | [slave]                 |  65  | f |       |       | Aug 1859  |             | Scroffula         |  10      | 21  | [slave]                 | 1 mo | f |       |       | May 1860  |             | fits              |  2       | 22  | [slave]                 |  20  | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Hearnia           |  11      | 23  | [slave]                 |   1  | f |       |       | May 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |  21      | 24  | [slave]                 |  15  | m |       |       | May 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |  12      | 25  | Jno. A. Martin          |  34  | m |   m   |  Miss | Mar 1860  |   Farmer    | inflamation       |  4       | 26  | Sarah Martin            |  30  | f |   m   |  Miss | Feb 1860  |   Farmer    | Billiouss Cholia  |  1       | 27  | [slave]                 |7 mos | m |       |    La | May 1860  |             | Complex           |  1       | 28  | S. L. Gray              |   5  | f |       |    La | Nov 1859  |             | Typhoid Fever     |  14      | 29  | Jno. Rabon              |  48  | m |       |    SC | Jan 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |  7       | 30  | [slave]                 |  58  | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Chronic Disease   |  60      | 31  | [slave]                 |  30  | m |       |       | Mar 1860  |             | Cholia            |  1       | 32  | W. O. Glasson           |  14  | m |       |   Ala | Apr 1860  |             | Brain Fever       |  3       | 33  | J. O. Glasson           |  11  | m |       |   Ala | July 1859 |             | Brain Fever       |  3       | 34  | M. Peek                 |  15  | f |       |   Ala | Apr 1860  |             | Pneumonia         |  9       | 35  | Francis Jeter           |  22  | f |       |  Miss | July 1859 |             | inflamation       |  5       | =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===================|==========|================| Year: 1860   State: Louisiana   County: Union   Page No: 6 Reel no: T655-22   Division: none given Enumerated by: A. C. Wade Transcribed by T. D. Hudson for USGenWeb. Copyright: 2004 =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===============|=============|================|      |   NAME OF EVERY PERSON  |      | S |MARRIED| PLACE | MONTH     | PROFESSION, |   DISEASE     |  NUMBER     | REMARKS        | LINE |   WHO DIED DURING THE   |  AGE | E |  OR   |   OF  |   OF      | OCCUPATION, |   OR CAUSE    |    OF       | ADDED BY       |       | YEAR ENDING 1 JUNE 1860 |      | X |WIDOWED| BIRTH | DEATH     |   OR TRADE  |   OF DEATH    | DAYS ILL    | TRANSCRIBER    | =====|=========================|======|===|=======|=======|===========|=============|===============|=============|================|   1  | J. W. Thomas            |6 mos | m |       |  Ala  | Aug 1859  |             | Pneumonia     |   9         |   2  | [slave]                 |   2  | f |       |       | May 1860  |             | Congestion    |   3         |   3  | Geo. Stripling          |  13  | m |       |  Ark  | Dec 1859  |             | Fever         |  20         |   4  | B. L. Repond            |2 mos | m |       |   La  | Mar 1860  |             | Unknown       |   5         |   5  | R. George               |? mos | m |       |   La  | Mar 1860  |             | Poison        |   1/6  (?)  |   6  | [slave]                 |6 mos | m |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Pneumonia     |  14         |   7  | [slave]                 |1 mos | f |       |       | Apr 1860  |             | Dropsy        |  90         |      8  | [slave]                 |   3  | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Unknown       |   1         |   9  | [slave]                 |   1  | m |       |       | June 1859 |             | Unknown       |   2         | 10  | H. T. Green             |8 mos | m |       |   La  | Feb 1860  |             | Unknown       |   5         | 11  | [slave]                 |   2  | m |       |       | May 1860  |             | inflamation   |  14         | 12  | [slave]                 |6 mos | m |       |       | Jan 1859  |             | inflamation   |  11         | =====|=========================|======|===|===============|===========|=============|===============|=============|================| Jan 1861: Benito Juarez's government seizes power in Mexico City and ends the Guerra de Reforma Jul 1861: Britain, France and Spain ally against Mexican reforms Sep 1861: The militia of Buenos Aires led by Bartolome Mitre rebels again and this time defeats Urquiza, so that Mitre can become president of a truly united Argentina 1861: Jose Joaquin Perez is chosen to become president of Chile by Montt 1861: General Jose Maria de Acha seizes power in Bolivia 1861: Santo Domingo's dictator Pedro Santana asks Spain for annexion TM, ®, Copyright © 2008 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. Jan 1862: British, French and Spanish troops attack Mexico over a financial dispute, but Britain and Spain soon withdraw 1862: Bartolome Mitre is appointed president of Argentina, thus reuniting the country after the civil war 1862: The USA recognizes Haiti's independence 1862: Francisco Solano Lopez succeeds his father in Paraguay and creates a powerful army 1862: Ecuador declares war on Colombia May 1862: The French invaders are defeated by the Mexican army at Puebla on the "Cinco de Mayo" 1863: British ships enact a six-day blockade of Rio to force Brazil to free slaves Oct 1863: Guatemala defeats El Salvador in a war, with Honduras siding with El Salvador and Nicaragua and Costa Rica with Guatemala 1863: Castilla loses power in Peru and is succeeded by Juan Antonio Pezet 1863: The USA supplies weapons to the Mexican government fighting against France 1863: Ecuador loses the war against Colombia 1863: Venezuela abolishes the death penalty for all crimes (the first country in the world) 1863: Paez leaves Venezuela that plunges into anarchy 1863: The railway from Santiago to Valparaiso is inaugurated 1863: The Granadine Confederation adopts the name United States of Colombia May 1863: France defeats Mexico and captures Ciudad de Mexico, while Juarez flees north 1864: Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay attack Lopez's Paraguay ("War of the Triple Alliance") 1864: Mariano Melgarejo seizes power in Bolivia, and establishes a depraved regime 1864: 70% of Chile's exports come from copper, gold and silver May 1864: France crowns the archduke Maximilian of Austria emperor of Mexico 1865: Mariano Ignacio Prado repels a Spanish naval attack and becomes dictator of Peru 1865: Spain abandons Santo Domingo Apr 1865: Guatemalan dictator Rafael Carrera dies 1866: Ecuador's writer Juan Montalvo founds the newspaper "El Cosmopolita" to criticize the dictatorship of Garcia Moreno Mar 1867: France withdraws from Mexico, Maximilian is overthrown and executed by Benito Juarez, who restores his government in Mexico City 1868: Bartolome Mitre is replaced by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento the "schoolmaster" as president of Argentina, the first civilian president since Rosas seized power, who embarks on a program of mass education and foreign immigration 1868: Mining production in Mexico is finally back to 1808 values 1868: The colonel Jose Balta becomes dictator of Peru 1868: Lorenzo Batlle y Grau of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1869: Argentina has 1.8 million people 1869: Jose Marti is arrested in Cuba for his anti-Spanish activities 1869: France intervenes in Haiti 1869: The newspaper "La Prensa" is founded in Argentina 1869: Pedro appoints the Conservative Party to form a government in Brazil 1870: Paraguay surrenders to Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay after having lost more than 50% of its population (300,000 people) in the war (almost all its male citizens), and Paraguay's dictator Lopez commits suicide 1870: Urquiza is assassinated in Argentina 1870: Antonio Guzman Blanco of the Liberal Party becomes president of Venezuela, dominating its political scene for 18 years 1870: The newspaper "La Nacion" is founded in Argentina 1870: The population of Mexico is 9 million 1870: Tomas Guardia seizes power in Costa Rica   1870 United States Federal Census about Robert Benford Name: Robert Benford Estimated Birth Year: abt 1859 Age in 1870: 11 Birthplace: Virginia Home in 1870: Ward 2, Union, Louisiana Race: Mulatto Gender: Male Post Office: Marion Household Members: Name Age Thos L H MacLin 50, head Mary A MacLin 34 Elizabeth R MacLin 13 Benjamin MacLin 12 Adison MacLin 8 Mary L MacLin 3 Thomas White 24 Nancy Benford 60, servant, b. VA? Robert Benford 11, farm labor, b. VA? Betsey Harper 61, farm labor, b. LA Source Citation: Year: 1870; Census Place: Ward 2, Union, Louisiana; Roll M593_534; Page: 44; Image: 88 ***************************************** 1880 United States Federal Census about Robert Binford <BENFORD> Name: Robert Binford Home in 1880: Union, Louisiana Age: 21 Estimated Birth Year: abt 1859 Birthplace: Alabama Relation to Head of Household: Self (Head) Spouse's Name: Laura Mother's birthplace: Alabama Neighbors: View others on page Occupation: Farming Marital Status: Married Race: Mulatto Gender: Male Household Members: Name Age Robert Binford 21, head, farming, b. Ala. Laura Binford 21, wife, b. Louisiana Robert Gibson 10, boarder Source Citation: Year: 1880; Census Place: , Union, Louisiana; Roll T9_473; Family History Film: 1254473; Page: 436.1000; Enumeration District: 85; . ******************************************* 1900 United States Federal Census about Bob Benford Name: Bob Benford Home in 1900: Police Jury Ward 2, Union, Louisiana Age: 42 Birth Date: Oct 1857 Birthplace: Alabama Race: Black Ethnicity: American Gender: Male Relationship to Head of House: Head Father's Birthplace: Un Mother's Birthplace: Un Spouse's Name: Laura Marriage year: 1880 Marital Status: Married Years Married: 20 Residence : Ward 2 (West Part), Union, Louisiana Household Members: Name Age Bob Benford 42, head, b. Oct. 1857, married 20 yrs., b. Alabama, farmer Laura Benford 44, wife, b. Sept. 1855, married 20 yrs, 13 children, 12 living 1900, b. Louisiana, parents b. Alabama Arthur Benford 19, son, b. Nov. 1880, Louisiana, farm labor Maria Benford 16, daughter, b. Nov. 1883, Louisiana Lula Benford 14, daughter, b. Aug. 1885, Louisiana Golda Benford 12, daughter, b. June 1887, Louisiana Otlu Benford 10, daughter, b. June 1889, Louisiana Minnie Benford 9, daughter, b. May 1891, Louisiana Bessie Benford 7, daughter, b. Sept. 1892, Louisiana Bob Benford 5, son, b. May 1895, Louisiana Oliver Benford 2, son, b. June 1897, Louisiana Willie Benford 2/12, son, b. March 1900, Louisiana Monroe White 19, cousin, b. June 1880, Louisiana, father b. Alabama, mother b. Louisiana Source Citation: Year: 1900; Census Place: Police Jury Ward 2, Union, Louisiana; Roll T623_585 Page: 22A; Enumeration District: 118 *************************************** 1910 United States Federal Census about Robert Binford Name: Robert Binford Age in 1910: 52 Estimated Birth Year: abt 1858 Birthplace: Alabama Relation to Head of House: Head Father's Birth Place: Alabama Mother's Birth Place: Alabama Spouse's Name: Loura Home in 1910: Police Ward 2, Union, Louisiana Marital Status: Married Race: Mulatto Gender: Male Household Members: Name Age Robert Binford 52, head, marriage 1, married 32 yrs, b. Alabama, parents b. Alabama, farm operator, general farm Loura Binford 52, wife, marriage 1, married 32 yrs, 12 children, 9 living 1910, b. Louisiana, parents b. Alabama Minnie Binford 19, daughter, 1 child, 0 living 1910, b. Louisiana Bessie Binford 17, daughter Robert Binford Jr. 16, son Oliver Binford 12, son Willie Binford 10, son Source Citation: Year: 1910; Census Place: Police Ward 2, Union, Louisiana; Roll T624_533; Page: 28B; Enumeration District: 132; Image: 102 ************************************** World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918 about Willie Benford Name: Willie Benford Residence: RFD #3, Marion County: Union State: Louisiana Birth Date: 1900 Race: Black FHL Roll Number: 1685024 Farming, Robert Benford, Marion, La. Father: Robert Benford, same address medium tall, medium build, black eyes, black hair *************************************** 1920 United States Federal Census about Bob Benford Name: Bob Benford Home in 1920: Villemont, Jefferson, Arkansas Age: 61 years Estimated Birth Year: abt 1859 Birthplace: Alabama Relation to Head of House: Head Spouse's Name: Laura Father's Birth Place: United States of America Mother's Birth Place: Alabama Marital Status: Married Race: Mulatto Sex: Male Home owned: Own Able to read: No Able to Write: No Household Members: Name Age Bob Benford 61, head, b. Alabama, father b. USA, mother b. Alabama, farmer Laura Benford 60, wife, b. Louisiana, parents b. Alabama Minnie Benford 28, daughter, b. Louisiana Oliver Benford 22, son, b. Louisiana, laborer, saw mill Eula Benford 13, daughter, b. Louisiana Holda <Golda> Benford 11, daughter, b. Louisiana Rosco Mitchel 9, grandson, b. LA, parents b. LA Wilba <Wilbur> Langford 2, grandson, b. LA, parents b. LA Living on next farm: Duke Lowe 34, head, b. Louisiana, father b. Alabama, mother b. Tennessee, farmer Alice Lowe 30, wife, b. Louisiana, father b. Alabama, mother b. Louisiana Resa Lowe 13, daughter, b. Louisiana Dorsey Lowe 11, son Lumirla Lowe 9, daughter Ella Lowe 7, daughter Willie Benford 19, brother in law, married, b. LA Pearl Benford 17, sister in law/wife, married, b. LA Source Citation: Year: 1920;Census Place: Villemont, Jefferson, Arkansas; Roll T625_68; Page: 4A; Enumeration District: 145; Image: 119 *************************************** 1930 United States Federal Census about Robt Benford Name: Robt Benford Home in 1930: Washington, Jefferson, Arkansas View Map Age: 70 Estimated Birth Year: abt 1860 Birthplace: Alabama Relation to Head of House: Head Race: Negro (Black) Household Members: Name Age Robt Benford 70, head, widower, b. Ala, parents b. Ala., farmer, general farm Source Citation: Year: 1930; Census Place: Washington, Jefferson, Arkansas; Roll 79; Page: 6B; Enumeration District: 63; Image: 778.0. **************************************** 1930 United States Federal Census about Willie Benford Name: Willie Benford Home in 1930: Pine Bluff, Jefferson, Arkansas View Map Age: 30 Estimated Birth Year: abt 1900 Birthplace: Louisiana Relation to Head of House: Prisoner Race: Negro (Black County Jail and Calaboose Source Citation: Year: 1930; Census Place: Pine Bluff, Jefferson, Arkansas; Roll 79; Page: 4B; Enumeration District: 33; Image: 10.0. ********************************************** From www.familysearch.org Robert Benford Jr. Sex: M Event(s) Birth: May 1895 Lousiana Parents Father: Robert Benford Mother: Laura Wills Robert Renford B: Oct 1857 Union county Alabama D: 26 Dec 1955 Pine Bluff AR submitted information **************************************** **************************************** 1870 United States Federal Census about Nelson Binford Name: Nelson Binford Estimated Birth Year: abt 1832 Age in 1870: 38 Birthplace: Alabama Home in 1870: Township 4 Range 5, Limestone, Alabama Race: Black Gender: Male Post Office: Athens Household Members: Name Age Nelson Binford 38, head, farmer, b. Ala. Louisa Binford 38, wife, b. Ala. Malinda Binford 25, daughter. b. Ala. Bettie Binford 15, daughter, b. Ala <+++++++++++++ Source Citation: Year: 1870; Census Place: Township 4 Range 5, Limestone, Alabama; Roll M593_24; Page: 141; Image: 285. ******************************************* 1880 United States Federal Census about Betty Benford Name: Betty Benford Home in 1880: Limestone, Alabama Age: 25 Estimated Birth Year: abt 1855 Birthplace: Alabama Relation to Head of Household: Self (Head) Father's birthplace: Alabama Mother's birthplace: Alabama Occupation: Laborer Marital Status: Divorced Race: Mulatto Gender: Female Household Members: Name Age Betty Benford 25, head, divorced, b. Ala, parents b. Ala. Ferdy Benford 4, son David Benford 2, son Source Citation: Year: 1880; Census Place: , Limestone, Alabama; Roll T9_20; Family History Film: 1254020; Page: 495.3000; Enumeration District: 192; . Age: 79 "Slavery-time folks? Here's one of em. Near as I can get at it, I'se seventy-nine. I was born in Alabama. My white folks said I come from Perry County, Alabama, but I come here to this Arkansas country when I was small. "My old master was Jim Ad Benford. He was good to us. I'm goin' to tell you we was better off then than now. Yes ma'am, they treated us right. We didn't have to worry bout payin' the doctor and had plenty to eat. "I recollect the shoemaker come and measured my feet and directly he'd bring me old red russet shoes. I thought they was the prettiest things I ever saw in my life. "Old mistress would say, 'Come on here, you little niggers' and she'd sprinkle sugar on the meat block and we'd just lick sugar. "I remember the soldiers good, had on blue suits with brass buttons. "I'se big enough to ride old master's hoss to water. He'd say, 'Now, Bob, don't you run that hoss' but when I got out of sight, I was bound to run that hoss a little. "I didn't have to work, just stayed in the house with my mammy. She was a seamstress. I'm tellin' you the truth now. I can tell it at night as well as daytime. "We lived in Union County. Old master had a lot of hands. Old mistress' name was Miss Sallie Benford. She just as good as she could be. She'd come out to the quarters to see how we was gettin' along. I'd be so glad when Christmas come. We'd have hog killin' and I'd get the bladders and blow em up to make noise--you know. Yes, lady, we'd have a time. "I recollect when Marse Jim broke up and went to Texas. Stayed there bout a year and come back. [HW: migration?] "When the war was over I recollect they said we was free but I didn't know what that meant. I was always free. "After freedom mammy stayed there on the place and worked on the shares. I don't know nothin' bout my father. They said he was a white man. "I remember I was out in the field with mammy and had a old mule. I punched him with a stick and he come back with them hoofs and kicked me right in the jaw--knocked me dead. Lord, lady, I had to eat mush till I don't like mush today. That was old Mose--he was a saddle mule. "Me? I ain't been to school a day in my life. If I had a chance to go I didn't know it. I had to help mammy work. I recollect one time when she was sick I got into a fight and she cried and said, 'That's the way you does my child' and I know she died next week. "After that I worked here and there. I remember the first run I worked for was Kinch McKinney of El Dorado. "I remember when I was just learnin' to plow, old mule knew five hundred times more than I did. He was graduated and he learnt me. "I made fifty-seven crops in my lifetime. Me and Hance Chapman--he was my witness when I married--we made four bales that year. That was in 1879. His father got two bales and Hance and me got two. I made money every year. Yes ma'am, I have made some money in my day. When I moved from Louisiana to Arkansas I sold one hundred eighty acres of land and three hundred head of hogs. I come up here cause my chillun was here and my wife wanted to come here. You know how people will stroll when they get grown. Lost everything I had. Bought a little farm here and they wouldn't let me raise but two acres of cotton the last year I farmed and I couldn't make my payments with that. Made me plow up some of the prettiest cotton I ever saw and I never got a cent for it. "Lady, nobody don't know how old people is treated nowdays. But I'm livin' and I thank the Lord. I'm so glad the Lord sent you here, lady. I been once a man and twice a child. You know when you're tellin' the truth, you can tell it all the time. "Klu Klux? The Lord have mercy! In '74 and '75 saw em but never was bothered by a white man in my life. Never been arrested and never had a lawsuit in my life. I can go down here and talk to these officers any time. "Yes ma'am, I used to vote. Never had no trouble. I don't know what ticket I voted. We just voted for the man we wanted. Used to have colored men on the grand jury--half and half--and then got down to one and then knocked em all out. "I never done no public work in my life but when you said farmin' you hit me then. "Nother thing I never done. I bought two counterpins once in my life on the stallments and ain't never bought nothin' since that way. Yes ma'am, I got a bait of that stallment buying. That's been forty years ago. "I know one time when I was livin' in Louisiana, we had a teacher named Arvin Nichols. He taught there seventeen years and one time he passed some white ladies and tipped his hat and went on and fore sundown they had him arrested. Some of the white men who knew him went to court and said what had he done, and they cleared him right away. That was in the '80's in Marion, Louisiana, in Union Parish 1871: The liberal Federico Errazuriz becomes president of Chile 1871: Spain intervenes in Haiti 1871: The liberal Justo Rufino Barrios seizes power in Guatemala 1872: Mexico's president Juarez dies (possibly poisoned) and is succeeded by Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada 1872: The USA businessman Minor Cooper Keith opens a banana plantation in Costa Rica 1872: Manuel Pardo is the first civilian president of Peru, but his tenure is rocked by the collapse of the guano economy 1872: Germany intervenes in Haiti Jul 1872: El Salvador and Guatemala defeat Honduras in a brief war 1873: Britain forces Zanzibar to outlaw the slave trade 1873: Manuel Ferraz de Campos Salles and Prudente de Moraes sign a republican manifesto calling for an end to the empire 1873: The railway between Mexico City and Veracruz is inaugurated 1874: The first cable between Brazil and Europe 1874: Chile increases the number of men who can vote (but still fewer than 50%) 1874: Domingo Faustino Sarmiento is replaced by Nicolas Avellaneda as president of Argentina (280.000 immigrants have entered Argentina during Sarmiento's rule) 1875: Gabriel Garcia Moreno of Ecuador is assassinated, opening an age of anarchy 1875: Peru exports 20 million tons of guano (fertilizer from bird droppings) 1875: Brazil provides about half of the coffee traded in the world 1876: The mestizo Porfirio Diaz overthrows Mexico's president Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada in the name of free elections, but proceeds to create a dictatorship but also to develop the infrastructure of Mexico 1876: Mariano Ignacio Prado again becomes dictator of Peru 1876: Anibal Pinto Garmendia becomes president of Chile 1876: Chile supplies 38% of the copper traded in the world 1876: The population of Peru is 2.7 million Apr 1876: Guatemala defeats El Salvador again, forcing the formation of a pro-Guatemalan government in Salvador led by Rafael Zaldivar. 1877: Britain intervenes in Haiti 1878: Following their victory in the elections, Pedro appoints the Liberal Party to form a government in Brazil 1879: Gold boom in Guyana 1879: Chile fights a border war against Peru and Bolivia ("War of the Pacific") 1879: The civil war in Colombia kills 80,000 people 1879: Argentinian general Julio Argentino Roca is dispatched to eradicate the last remaining indios 1880: The liberal but pro-clerical Rafael Nunez is elected president of Colombia 1880: 90% of Mexicans are illiterate 1880: Cattle and sheep products account for 90% of Argentina's exports 1880: Nicolas Avelaneda is replaced by Julio Argentino Roca as president of Argentina 1881: Domingo Santa Maria becomes president of Chile 1881: Francesco Matarazzo arrives in Brazil from Italy and begins building an economic empire 1881: Jose Marti mobilizes the Cuban community in the USA against Spain 1882: Ignacio de Veintemilla seizes power in Ecuador 1882: Maximo Santos of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1882: Argentina's first meat-packing plant is built by British investors 1883: At the end of the "War of the Pacific" Bolivia loses its access to the sea (the port of Antofagasta) and the nitrate fields to Chile, Peru loses its southern provinces to Chile and is left bankrupt 1883: Jose Maria Placido Caamano becomes dictator of Ecuador 1883: Sao Paulo in Brazil has 35,000 people 1884: A railway is inaugurated between Mexico City and El Paso 11. Ida B. Wells: Stop the Lynching! - Suite101.com - Home : Arts and Humanities : History : History Department by Terrie Bittner Welcome Articles Links Discussions Ida B. Wells: Stop the Lynching! In 1884, an attractihttp://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/womens_history_old/15309 78% Home : Arts and Humanities : History : History Department by Terrie Bittner Welcome Articles Links Discussions Ida B. Wells: Stop the Lynching! In 1884, an attracti Found by: FAST Search, Lycos http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/womens_history_old/15309 1885: Costa Rica finance minister Mauro Fernandez launches a program of mass education 1885: El Salvador defeats Guatemala at the Chalchuapa Battle and Justo Rufino Barrios is killed, thus ending his dream of conquering Central America 1886: Peru's general Andres Avelina Caceres seizes power 1886: The Conservative Party wins the elections in Brazil 1886: Colombia enacts a new constitution drafted by president Rafael Nunez, that proclaims a unitarian Republic of Colombia instead of the previous federalist United States of Colombia (one of the longest lasting constitutions in the world) 1886: Maximo Tajes of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1886: Jose Battle y Ordonez founds the newspaper "El Dia" in Uruguay 1886: Roca is replaced by his brother-in-law Miguel Juarez Celman as president of Argentina 1886: The liberal wealthy landowner Jose Manuel Balmaceda becomes president of Chile (beginning of the liberal republic), and invests heavily in schools and railways 1887: The Partido Democratico is founded in Chile 1888: Peru signs the "Grace Contract" that grants Britain 66 years of monopoly on the railroads but saves the country from bankruptcy 1888: Chile annexes the Easter Islands 1888: The railway from Mexico City to Monterrey to Laredo is inaugurated 1888: Slavery is abolished in Brazil (the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery), and European immigration booms (132,000 in 1888) 1888: Antonio Guzman Blanco retires from politics opening a decade of anarchy in Venezuela 1888: A financial crisis hits Argentina 1888: Colombia signs a concordat with the Catholic Church Nov 1889: A coup led by general Deodoro da Fonseca deposes Brazil's king Pedro II and inaugurates the republic, with power alternating between Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais, and Brazil enters a stage of rapid economic growth 1889: Costa Rica holds its first free elections 1889: The first Conference of American States is held in Washington 1889: Brazil's population is 14 million, of which 15% are black and 32% mulatto 1889: The first International Conference of American States is held in Washington, resulting in the founding of the "International Union of American Republics" Aug 1890: Argentinian president Celman is forced to resign by popular protests and vicepresident Carlos Pellegrini succeeds him Apr 1890: Leandro Alem organizes the Marxist-leaning Union Civica in Argentina 1890: Julio Herrera y Obes of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1890: 900,000 Europeans have emigrated to Brazil since 1822 1890: 1.74 million Europeans have emigrated to Argentina since 1851, mostly from Spain and Italy 1890: Brazil's population is 14.3 million 1890: The production of nitrate in Chile has tripled in ten years 1890: The first general strike is held in Chile Oct 1891: Balmaceda is deposed in a coup staged by the parliament, and naval captain Jorge Montt Alvarez becomes president of Chile (beginning of the parliamentary republic) 1891: Peru's anti-clerical writer Manuel Gonzalez Prada help found the party "National Union", a defender of the Quechua indios Feb 1891: Brazil proclaims a new constitution as a federal republic ("Old Republic") and Deodoro de Fonseca is elected first president Nov 1891: Deodoro de Fonseca is overthrown by vice-president and army marshal Floriano Peixoto, who begins a military dictatorship 1892: The conservative Luis Saenza Pena is elected president of Argentina 1892: Leandro Alem founds the Union Civica Radical in Argentina 1892: A railway linking Bolivia with the Pacific coast (Oruro-Antofagasta) is inaugurated 1893: Second navy rebellion in Brazil 1893: Revolucao Federalista in Brazil 1893: Argentina's Radicals attempt an armed insurrection 1893: The liberal Jose Santos Zelaya seizes power in Nicaragua 1894: Juan Idiarte Borda of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1894: Juan Justo organizes the Partido Socialista Argentino Mar 1894: Prudente Jose de Morais e Barros, a former governor of Sao Paulo, becomes the first civilian president of Brazil 1894: The USA sends troops to Nicaragua 1894: Colombia's president Rafael Nunez dies and the country plunges again into anarchy 1895: Luis Saenza Pena resigns and is succeeded by the conservative Jose Uriburu as president of Argentina 1895: Policarpo Bonilla is elected president of Honduras 1895: Britain and Venezuela argue over the border of Guyana 1895: Jose Eloy Alfaro, representing the anti-clerical liberals from Guayaquil, becomes president of Ecuador 1895: Jose Nicolas de Pierola of the Partido Civilista leads a revolution against general Avelina Caceres and becomes president of Peru, leading the country to rapid economic growth (beginning of the "Aristocratic Republic") 1895: Jose Marti lands in Cuba and proclaims the independence of Cuba from Spain but is killed by Spanish troops 1896: Federico Errazuriz Echaurren becomes president of Chile 1892: Leandro Alem of Argentina's Union Civica Radical commits suicide and is succeeded at the leadership of the party by his nephew Hipolito Yrigoyen 1896: War of Canudos in Brazil 1896: Aparicio Saravia of the "Partido Nacional" (the "Blancos") starts a civil war in Uruguary 1897: Juan Lindolfo Cuestas of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1898: The USA defeats Spain and gains the Philippines, Cuba and Puerto Rico, ending Spanish rule in America Nov 1898: Sao Paulo's governor Manuel Ferraz de Campos Salles becomes president of Brazil 1898: Jose Uriburu is succeeded by the conservative Julio Roca as president of Argentina 1899: Civil war erupts in Colombia between liberals and conservatives ("Guerra de los Mil Dias") 1899: Banana tycoon Cooper Keith founds United Fruit Company in Costa Rica 1899: Eduardo Lopez de Romana becomes president of Peru during the stable "Aristocratic Republic" 1899: Cipriano Castro becomes dictator of Venezuela 1899: Nicaragua becomes a de-facto colony of the USA 1900: The population of Peru is 3.7 million 1900: The Partido Liberal is founded in Mexico by leftists 1900: The USA investor Edward Doheny strikes oil in Mexico 1900: Brazil's population is 17.3 million 1900: Sao Paulo in Brazil has 239,00 people 1900 United States Federal Census 1900 United States Federal Census Name: Wyatt Cook Home in 1900: Carlowville, Dallas, Alabama Age: 65 Estimated Birth Year: abt 1835 Birthplace: Virginia Relationship to head-of-house: Head Spouse's Name: Fanny Mother's Name: Diley Race: Black Occupation: View Image Neighbors: View others on page Household Members: Name Age Wyatt Cook 65 Fanny Cook 50 Diley Cook 75   Source Citation: Year: 1900; Census Place: Carlowville, Dallas, Alabama; Roll: T623 14; Page: 4A; Enumeration District: 38. Source Information: Ancestry.com. 1900 United States Federal Census [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: The Generations Network, Inc., 2004. Original data: United States of America, Bureau of the Census. Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1900 1901: German Riesco Err zuriz becomes president of Chile 1901: Another liberal general, Leonidas Plaza Gutierrez, succeeds Eloy Alfaro as dictator of Ecuador May 1902: Cuba becomes a republic and Tomas Estrada Palma is elected president 1902: Youstol Dispage dies 1902: The USA brokers a peace in Colombia, after 120,000 people have been killed 1902: Uruguya has one million people Nov 1902: Campos Salles is replaced by Rodrigues Alves, also from Sao Paulo, as president of Brazil 1903: Panama secedes from Colombia with help from the USA 1903: The Civilista Party gains control of power in Peru, with a program of industrialization and urbanization 1903: Jose Battle y Ordonez, son of former president Lorenzo Batlle y Grau, of the "Colorado Party" is the first civilian president of Uruguay, dominating its politics for 28 years 1904: Vaccine Revolt in Brazil 1904: For the first time gold and silver represent less than 50% of Mexico's exports 1904: Uruguay's president Battle defeats the "Blancos" of Aparicio Saravia at the battle of Masoller 1904: The conservative Rafael Reyes is elected president of Colombia, but shares the government with the liberals ("Concordia Nacional") 1904: The USA begins work on the Panama canal 1904: USA troops leave Cuba, after having de facto ran its government for five years 1904: Bolivia loses the eastern regions to Brazil 1904: Manuel Bonilla is appointed president of Honduras 1904: Roca is succeeded by the conservative Manuel Quintana as president of Argentina 1904: The first meat-packing factory opens in Uruguay 1905: The USA invades the Dominican Republic 1905: Argentina's Radicals attempt a second armed insurrection, and a Spanish anarchist tries to shoot the president 1905: Argentina exports more wheat than meat 1905: Riots to protest against inflation in Chile's capital Santiago leave more than 300 people dead 1906: Argentinian president Manuel Quintana dies of fatal wounds following a terrorist attack by an anarchist, and is succeeded by Alcorta Figueroa 1906: Eloy Alfaro returns to power in Ecuador with a coup 1906: The collapse of coffee prices causes an economic crisis in Brazil 1906: Pedro Montt Montt becomes president of Chile 1906: The Federacion de Estudiantes de Chile is founded Nov 1906: Afonso Pena becomes president of Brazil 1907: The government of Chile massacres striking miners in Iquique 1907: Literacy in Uruguay is 55% 1907: The population of Santiago in Chile is 330,000 1907: Nicaraguan troops remove Manuel Bonilla and install Miguel Davila as president of Honduras 1907: Battle in Uruguay installs Claudio WIlliman as president 1908: Juan Vicente Gomez seizes power in Venezuela and becomes a ruthless dictator 1908: A railway connects Buenos Aires to the Bolivian border 1908: Augusto Leguia is elected president of Peru 1909: Jose Miguel Gomez is elected president of Cuba 1909: Costa Rica is the world's biggest exporter of coffee 1909: Federacion Obrera de Chile is founded 1909: A Russian anarchist kills the chief of police of Buenos Aires in Argentina 1909: The populist Emiliano Zapata is elected president of the small village of Anenecuilco in Mexico with a program of land redistribution December 1909: The USA forces Nicaragua's president Jose Santos Zelaya to resign 1910: The marshall Hermes da Fonseca becomes president of Brazil and faces the "Revolta da Chibata" 1910: The population of Mexico is 15 million 1910: The "International Union of American Republics" changes name to "Pan-American Union" Oct 1910: The conservative Roque Saenz Pena becomes president of Argentina Nov 1910: Hermes da Fonseca becomes president of Brazil Oct 1910: Francisco Madero in exile in Texas proclaims the "Plan de San Luis Potosi" that calls for a liberal revolution against Porfirio Diaz, while Pancho Villa engages in guerrilla in the north 1910: Mexican's exports have grown 900% since 1877, shifting from Europe to the USA August 1910: General Juan Jose Estrada, with help from the USA, conquers Nicaragua 1910: Brazil has a population of 22 million 1911: Battle returns as president of Uruguay May 1911: Pancho Villa conquers Ciudad Juarez in north Mexico and Porfirio Diaz resigns Nov 1911: Francisco Madero is inaugurated as new president of Mexico, but Emiliano Zapata begins a rebellion in the south while Pascual Orozco begins a rebellion in the north 1911: A coup led by Plaza overthrows Eloy Alfaro in Ecuador 1911: Russian-born USA businessman Sam Zemurray gains control of Honduras by having Manuel Bonilla oust and replace president Miguel Davila 1912: Universal male suffrage in Argentina 1912: Venezuela's dictator Gomez shuts down the Universidad Central of Caracas following student riots Jul 1912: Madero's general Victoriano Huerta defeats the rebels in the north 1912: The USA occupies Nicaragua 1912: Former dictator Eloy Alfaro of Ecuador is lynched by the people 1912: Luis Emilio Recabarren-Serrano founds the "Partido Obrero Socialista" (POS), later renamed Communist Party 1912: The conservative Guillermo Billinghurst is elected president of Peru Feb 1913: Victoriano Huerta seizes power in Mexico after Madero is assassinated, but rebellions flare up throughout the country (Pancho Villa in the north, Emiliano Zapata in the south, Venustiano Carranza in the northeast, and Alvaro Obregon in Sonora) 1913: Roque Saenz Pena becomes ill and is replaced by vicepresident Victorino de la Plaza 1913: Argentina's per-capita GDP is twice Italy's 1913: Honduras' president Manuel Bonilla dies but Sam Zemurray retains control of the country 1913: Mario Garcia Menocal becomes president of Cuba 1913: The subway of Buenos Aires (Argentina) opens Apr 1914: The USA occupies Veracruz, Mexico's main port, to help the revolutionaries Aug 1914: Carranza and Obregon enter Mexico City and depose Mexican president Victoriano Huerta, but neither Villa nor Zapata accept Carranza as president Nov 1914: The USA withdraws from Veracruz 1914: A British-built subway opens in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Britain owns 70% of the 33,000 kms of railway in the country 1914: Oscar Raimundo Benavides stages a military coup in Peru and seizes power from the Civilistas Nov 1914: Wenceslau Braz-Pereira-Gomes of Minas Gerais becomes president of Brazil 1914: Roque Saenz Pena dies and is succeeded by as president of Argentina 1914: The Panama canal, built by the USA, is inaugurated 1914: Argentina's population has increased to 8 million, with 3 million immigrants from Europe in one century, 1914: "Sedicao de Juazeiro" in Brazil 1915: Jose de Pardo y Barreda is appointed president of Peru by the military 1915: The USA occupies Haiti to end a civil war Apr 1915: Obregon defeats Villa in Mexico at the battle of Celaya Oct 1915: The USA recognizes Carranza as president of Mexico and Pancho Villa raids the USA 1916: Hipolito Irigoyen is the first democratically elected president of Argentina 1916: The Brazilian Socialist Party is founded 1916: Plaza of Ecuador is succeeded by Alfredo Baquerizo Moreno, but real power falls in the hands of the "argolla" (the ring) led by Guayaquil banker Francisco Urbina Jado 1916: Contestado War in Brazil Mar 1916: The USA enters Mexico to fight Pancho Villa 1916: Hipolito Yrigoyen of the Radical party wins the first elections after universal male suffrage and becomes president of Argentina 1917: Brazil enters WWI on the side of Britain and France, the only Latin American country to do so Jan 1917: Mexico enacts a new constitution 1917: Frederico Tinoco stages a coup in Costa Rica 1917: Earthquake in Guatemala 1917: Oil is discovered in Venezuela 1918: Workers and students protest in Peru, led by Lima's student Victor Raul Haya de la Torre and Lima's journalist Jose Carlos Mariategui Jan 1918: Dissident socialists in Argentina form the Partido Comunista 1918: The "University Reform Movement" that starts from the University of Cordoba in Argentina demands autonomy of the universities (the universities become centers of the opposition) Nov 1918: Rodrigues Alves becomes president of Brazil again, but dies and is replaced by Delfim Moreira Apr 1919: Emiliano Zapata is assassinated by the government of Mexico 1919: Augusto Leguia wins the elections in Peru, cracks down on student and workers' protests and enacts a new constitution to pass economic and social reforms 1919: Uruguay enacts a new constitution that greatly increases the number of voters Jul 1919: Epitacio Pessoa becomes president of Brazil Nov 1920: Obregon is elected president of Mexico while Pancho Villa surrenders to the government and retires to a hacienda 1920: Sao Paulo in Brazil has 579,000 people 1920: Brazil's population is 30 million 1920: British investor Weetman Pearson discovers the largest oil field in the world in Mexico 1920: Juan Bautista Saavedra seizes power in Bolivia 1920: Carranza's assassination by the military led by Alvaro Obregon starts a new civil war in Mexico Dec 1920: Arturo Alessandri-Palma, the candidate of the Liberal Alliance coalition (Radical and Democratic parties), narrowly wins the elections for president of Chile 1921: Royal Dutch Shell discovers in Venezuela, and its per capita income rapidly becomes the highest in Latin America 1921: Mexico is the second largest producer of oil in the world 1921: Alfredo Zayas becomes president of Cuba 1922: Yrigoyen's trusted man Marcelo de Alvear becomes president of Argentina 1922: Luis Emilio Recabarren Serrano founds the "Partido Communista de Chile" (PCC) 1922: Artur da Silva Bernardes becomes president of Brazil Jul 1923: Pancho Villa is assassinated Nov 1922: Artur Bernardes becomes president of Brazil Dec 1923: Adolfo de la Huerta leads a rebellion against the Mexican government 1923: While in exile in Mexico, Haya de la Torre founds the Marxist-inspired party "Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana" (APRA), representing the Quechua indios of Peru Nov 1924: Plutarco Elias Calles, also from Sonora, succeeds his mentor Obregon as president of Mexico 1924: The USA withdraws from the Dominican Republic May 1924: Mexico's president Obregon defeats Adolfo de la Huerta's rebels Sep 1924: A military junta led by general Luis Altamirano forces Chile's president Alessandri to resign 1924: Brazilians riot in Sao Paulo to protest economic crisis and try to overthrow president Bernardes 1924: USA investment in Cuba has multipled by more than 40 times since 1895 to $1.24 billion 1924: Heroin is banned in the USA Mar 1925: Another military coup reinstates Alessandri as president of Chile Nov 1925: Alessandri resigns again as president of Chile and is replaced by Emiliano Figueroa, causing a two-day general strike 1925: Chile has had more than 120 governments since 1892 1925: The liberals are overthrown in Ecuador and Isidro Ayora is installed as president 1925: Gerardo Machado becomes president of Cuba and installs a dictatorship, opposed by the newly-founded Communist Party 1925: The USA withdraws from Nicaragua 1925: 3.5 million Europeans (mainly Italians and Portuguese) have immigrated to Brazil since 1886 Jul 1926: The "Cristeros" rise up against the Mexican government's decision to seize all properties of the Catholic Church 1926: The Mexican government seizes all the properties of the Catholic Church 1926: Bolivia's president Saavedra appoints Hernando Siles-Reyes, founder of the Nationalist Party, to be his successor Nov 1926: Washington Luiz-Pereira de Souza becomes president of Brazil May 1927: The colonel Carlos Ibanez seizes power in Chile, opening a period of political chaos 1927: The USA invades Nicaragua again to depose president Augusto Cesar Sandino 1927: Under pressure from the USA, Peru and Colombia ratify new borders that penalize Peru 1928: Obregon is reelected president of Mexico 1928: Venezuela's dictator Gomez quashes a rebellion by students and young officers, many of whom go into exile (Jovito Villalba, Raul Leon, Romulo Betancourt) 1928: Jose Carlos Mariategui founds the Peruvian Socialist (later Communist) Party 1928: Hipolito Yrigoyen is reappointed president of Argentina but his erratic behavior causes riots Jul 1928: Obregon of Mexico is assassinated by a Cristero Jun 1926: The "Cristero" rebels are defeated in Mexico Dec 1928: Emilio Portes Gil becomes president of Mexico, but real power is in the hands of Calles Mar 1929: Calles founds the Pardido Nacional Revolucionario (later renamed "Pardido Revolucionario Istitucional" or PRI) Nov 1929: Calles' choice Pascual Ortiz Rubio becomes president of Mexico, the beginning of rule by the PRI 1929: Venezuela is the second world producer of oil after the USA 1929: Colombia's population increases from 5 million in 1912 to 8 million 1929: Augusto Cesar Sandino begins a guerrilla war in Nicaragua against the USA 1929: The first Latin American Communist Conference in held in Buenos Aires 1929: Harvest of sugar peaks at five million tons in Cuba Oct 1930: The military seizes power in Brazil and installs the fascist government of rancher Getulio Vargas, who launches a populist revolution (end of the "Old Republic") 1930: One million Europeans immigrated to Argentina in one decade, 31% of the population is foreign-born, 46% of Argentinians live in the province of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires has two million people, literacy is 60%, 1930: Latin America's population is over 100 million 1930: Zemurray sells his banana company in Honduras to United Fruit but becomes United Fruit's largest shareholder 1930: The military, led by lieutenant colonel Luis Sanchez Cerro, overthrow Leguia in Peru, opening the age of the "tripartite" political system (the military, APRA and PCP) 1930: A coup overthrows Bolivia's president Siles-Reyes Sep 1930: A coup overthrows Hipolito Yrigoyen and installs Uriburu again, the beginning of military intervention in Argentina's politics 1930: The liberal Enrique Olaya Herrera is appointed president of Colombia, returning the liberals to power after four decades 1931: Daniel Salamanca of the Partido Republicano-Genuino wins elections in Bolivia 1931: Rafael Trujillo seizes power in the Dominican Republic 1931: A Partido Comunista is founded in Venezuela Nov 1931: general Agustin Justo wins elections in Arngetina 1931: Cuba's population grows from 1.6 million in 1899 to 4 million, thanks to European immigration and improved health care 1931: Literacy in Chile is 56% 1931: Gabriel Terra of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1931: A coup removes Ayora from power and opens a period of instability in Ecuador 1931: The general Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez seizes power in El Salvador Oct 1931: Haya returns to Peru but loses elections to the army's candidate Luis Sanchez Cerro 1931: The general Jorge Ubico becomes dictator of Guatemala Jul 1931: Chile's president Ibanez is forced to resign by strikes by workers, students and lawyers Oct 1931: Conservative candidate Juan Montero becomes Chile's president 1932: Bolivia and Paraguay go to war over border areas ("Chaco War") 1932: Uruguay allows women to vote Jun 1932: The airforce commander Marmaduke Grove establishes a socialist republic in Chile for a few months Jul 1932: More than 1,000 members of APRA are executed during an insurrection in Peru, Haya is arrested and APRA is banned Jul 1932: The wealthy class of Sao Paulo rebels in Brazil against Vargas but their insurrection is crushed Oct 1932: Arturo Alessandri becomes president of Chile again and restores order, turning Chile into the most democratic country in Latin America 1932: Agustine Farabundo Marti leads an uprising in El Salvador 1933: Marmaduke Grove founds the "Partido Socialista" (PS) of Chile 1933: The Partido Socialista is founded in Chile 1933: Coffee represents 71% of Brazil's exports Sep 1933: Cuba's dictator Gerardo Machado flees the country and Ramon Grau San Martin proclaims a socialist republic 1933: Peru's dictator Sanchez Cerro is assassinated by a supporter of APRA and replaced by army marshal Oscar Raimundo Benavides, while Haya, released from jail, goes abroad 1933: The USA withdraws from Nicaragua and general Anastasio Somoza is chosen to lead the National Guard Dec 1933: The Mexican government enacts a socialist-inspired "Six-year Plan" Jan 1934: Fulgencio Batista stages a coup and seize power in Cuba May 1934: Cuba and the USA sign a treaty ending the USA protectorate over Cuba Jul 1934: The general Lazaro Cardenas of the PRI (the former war minister and governor of Michoacan) succeeds Calles as president of Mexico and nationalizes the oil industry and launches a socialist agrarian reform 1934: Gabriel Terra of Uruguay enacts a new constitution granting him quasi-dictatorial powers 1934: The USA leaves Haiti 1934: Sandino is assassinated by the men of general Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua 1934: Jose Maria Velasco-Ibarra wins elections in Ecuador but is soon ousted by the military 1934: The liberal Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo is elected president of Colombia 1933: Bolivia's president Salamanca is overthrown in a coup and replaced with his vice president Jose Luis Tejada Sorzano of the Liberal Party 1935: Bolivia loses the war against Paraguay that annexes most of Bolivia's Gran Chaco 1935: Luis Carlos Prestes founds the "Alianca Nacional Libertadora" (ANL) that includes socialists and communists 1935: Juan Vicente Gomez of Venezuela dies, opening a decade of chaos 1936: A coup installs colonel David Toro Ruilova as dictator of Bolivia 1936: Communists, Radicals, Socialists and the Unions of Chile form the Frente Popular 1937: Ruilova resigns and is replaced by colonel German Busch Becerra as dictator of Bolivia, who experiments with "military socialism" Nov 1937: Brazil's dictator Getulio Vargas abolishes political parties ("Estado Novo") 1937: Chile's exports have more than tripled in five years 1937: Anastasio "Tacho" Somoza becomes president of Nicaragua Mar 1938: Mexico nationalizes USA and British oil companies                           1937: Marijuana is banned in the USA 1938: The liberal Eduardo Santos, publisher of "El Tiempo", is elected president of Colombia 1938: The Falange Nacional breaks away from the Conservative Party of Chile 1938: The candidate of the Frente Popular, Pedro Aguirre Cerda, narrowly wins the presidential elections of Chile (beginning of the Radical Years) 1938: Roberto Ortiz is elected president of Argentina 1938: Alfredo Baldomir of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1938: Bolivia adopts a constitution that nationalizes mineral resources 1939: Busch Becerra commits suicide and is replaced by general Carlos Quintanilla as dictator of Bolivia 1939: Peru's president Benavides is replaced by the winner of elections, Manuel Prado, who allows APRA's leader Haya to return from exile 1940: Mexico's president Lazaro Cardenas is replaced by Manuel Avila Camacho of the PRI, who launches industrial reforms 1940: Higinio Morinigo seizes power in Paraguay 1940: Mexico's population is 19.6 million 1940: The population of Brazil has increased almost 200% in 50 years 1940: A sick Ortiz resigns and his conservative vicepresident Ramon Castillo assumes the presidency of Argentina 1940: Rafael Calderon Guardia becomes president of Costa Rica 1940: Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia of the Partido Nacional Republicano is elected president of Costa Rica 1940: Bolivia's general Carlos Quintanilla installs general General Enrique Penaranda as Bolivia's new dictator 1940: The population of Peru is 7 million, with 500,000 people in Lima 1940: Arnulfo Arias Madrid become president of Panama for the first time 1941: Hernan Siles and V¡ctor Paz Estenssoro found the "Revolutionary Nationalist Movement" (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario, or MNR) in Bolivia 1941: Chile's president Cerda dies and is succeeded by the Radical candidate Juan Antonio Rio, while the Frente Popular is dissolved 1941: Peru wins a war against Ecuador and retains control of the coastal town that Ecuador had occupied 1941: Venezuelan politicians (Romulo Betancourt, Raul Leoni) and writers (Romulo Gallegos, Andres Blanco) found the party "Accion Democratica" 1942: The liberal Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo is elected again president of Colombia Aug 1942: Brazil enters World War II on the side of the USA Dec 1942: Bolivia's general Enrique Penaranda massacres mines at Catavi Jun 1943: A military coup removes Ramon Castillo of Argentina and installs Pedro Ramirez as president Oct 1943: Argentina's president Pedro Ramirez gives the ministry of Labor to Juan-Domingo Peron, who proceeds to organize workers 1943: Bolivia's dictator Penaranda is overthrown by the MNR that appoints general Gualberto Villarroel to be president 1943: Juan Jose de Amezaga of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1943: Venezuela enacts a law that splits profits from oil 50-50 between the government and the foreign oil companies                                                      1943: Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann discovers the hallucinogenic effects of LSD 1944: A coup restores Velasco of the Democratic Alliance as president of Ecuador 1944: The army overthrows dictator Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez in El Salvador 1944: Teodoro Picado of the Partido Nacional Republicano is elected president of Costa Rica 1944: Following mass demonstrations, the Ubico government collapses in Guatemala Mar 1945: The civilian Juan Jose Arevalo wins elections and becomes president of Guatemala, and his group of "October Revolutionaries" enacts liberal reforms, the beginning of the "Democratic Spring" 1944: Under USA pressure Batista allows elections in Cuba that are won by Ramon Grau San Martin 1945: The first free elections in Peru is won by liberal jurist Jose Luis Bustamante with APRA's support 1945: Argentina becomes a haven for nazists fleeing Germany at the end of World War II Aug 1945: Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo resigns and Alberto Lleras Camargo takes over as president of Colombia Oct 1945: A coup by young army officers installs Romulo Betancourt of Accion Democratica as provisional president of Venezuela Oct 1945: Vargas is deposed by the military in Brazil and replaced by Jose Linhares 1945: Chilean writer Gabriela Mistral wins the Nobel Prize for literature, the first Latin American to win the prize 1946: Miguel Aleman Valdez of the PRI is elected president of Mexico, the first civilian president of Mexico since the revolution 1946: While testing vaccines, the USA infects hundreds of mentally ill patients and prisoners in Guatemala with gonorrhoea and syphilis 1946: Francesco Matarazzo Sobrinho, son of Francesco Matarazzo, founds the "Museu de Arte Moderna" in Sao Paulo, Brazil Jan 1946: Eurico Gaspar Dutra becomes president of Brazil Feb 1946: Juan Peron wins presidential elections in Argentina Jul 1946: Bolivia's general Gualberto Villarroel is overthrown with complicity from the USA's CIA and the conservatives regain power 1946: Cayenne (French Guyana) becomes a department of France 1946: Gabriel Gonzalez Videla becomes president of Chile thanks to the votes of Communists and Radicals 1946: The USA established the military "School of the Americas" at Fort Gulick in the Canal Zone to train Latin American military officers, many of whom will stage coups in their countries 1946: Rafael Caldera founds the Social Christian Party of Venezuela, COPEI 1946: The conservative Mariano Ospina Perez is elected president in Colombia, ending liberal rule 1946: The USA founds the School of the Americas in Panama to train military officers to fight against leftist regimes and insurgency 1947: Venezuela holds its first free elections, won by Romulo Gallegos 1947: Most countries of the Americas sign the Rio de Janeiro "Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance" 1947: Luis Batlle Berres of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay Feb 1948: Romulo Gallegos of Accion Democratica wins presidential elections in Venezuela Mar 1948: Jose Figueres Ferrer in Costa Rica helped by a Caribbean Legion (mostly from Cuba) starts a civil war against the fraudolent reelection of Calderon (supported by Nicaragua) on behalf of the real winner, Otilio Ulate, and seizes power Dec 1948: A military coup deposes the liberal Romulo Gallegos of Accion Democratica in Venezuela and installs Marcos Perez Jimenez as president, a corrupt politician who outlaws the leftists 1949: Costa Rica's provisional president Jose Figueres Ferrer abolishes the army and grants voting rights to women and blacks Nov 1949: Otilio Ulate is appointed president of Costa Rica 1948: The "Pan-American Union" changes name to "Organization of American States" (OAS or OEA) 1948: Carlos Prio Socarras succeeds his mentor Grau San Martin as president of Cuba Oct 1948: A military coup deposes Bustamante in Peru and installs general Manuel Odria, the hero of the 1941 war against Ecuador 1948: Chile's president Videla bans the Communist Party Apr 1948: The populist Jorge Gaitan is assassinated in Colombia, starting a civil war that killed 250,000 people in ten years ("La Violencia") 1948: Galo Plaza Lasso of the liberal coalition, son of Leonidas Plaza, wins elections in Ecuador and diversifies the economy that used to be based mainly on cacao 1949: Nazist criminal Josef Mengele secretely arrives in Argentina 1949: Peron rewrites Argentina's constitution and curbs free speech 1949: Peru's dictator Manuel Odria arrests members of APRA and Haya takes refuge for five years in the Colombia embassy 1949: Venezuela invites Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to form a cartel of oil producing countries 1950: Nazist criminal Adolf Eichmann secretely arrives in Argentina 1950: Brazil's population is 51 million Aug 1950: The fascist and fanatical Catholic politician Laureano Gomez is elected president of Colombia after all opposition candidates have been forced to withdraw, while civil war rages in the country 1950: In the first peaceful transition of power in Guatemala's history, Arevalo is replaced by Jacobo Arbenz (another "October Revolutionary") as president of Guatemala, who allies with the communists 1950: Mexico's president Aleman commissions architect Carlos Lazo to build the Universidad Nacional, the largest campus in the world 1950: Brazil's population is 52 million 1951: Juan Peron announces that Argentina's nuclear program led by Austrian scientist Ronald Richter, but the program is later proved a fraud 1951: Andres Martinez Trueba of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1951: Francesco Matarazzo Sobrinho founds the "Bienal Internacional de Arte" of Sao Paulo, Brazil 1951: Jose Figueres Ferrer of Costa Rica founds the Partido de Liberacion Nacional (PLN) Jan 1951: Vargas is elected president again in Brazil 1951: Paz Estenssoro of the MNR is elected president of Bolivia but the election is stolen by general Hugo Ballivian 1951: Chile's inflation is 1550% 1952: The poor of Bolivia seize power ("Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario") after defeating the army, and Victor Paz Estenssoro forms a government, ending more than a century of coups (a total of 179, including six presidents assassinated) 1952: Latin America posts the highest population growth of all regions in the world, with Argentina growing 251% in 50 years and Brazil 191% 1952: Peron's wife Eva dies of cancer in Argentina as millions mourn her as a saint 1952: Responding to public discontent with the government, general Batista returns to Cuba and seizes power 1952: Jose Maria Velasco-Ibarra wins elections again in Ecuador 1952: Women are allowed to vote in presidential elections in Chile, that are won by the conservative candidate, former dictator Carlos Ibanez (end of the "Radical Years") with support from the Communists 1952: Adolfo Ruiz Cortines of the PRI is elected president of Mexico, and proceeds to build 33,000 kms of roads, irrigation for millions of acres of desert, thousands of schools and hundreds of hospitals June 1952: Guatemala's president Arevalo passes an agrarian reform intended to distribute land to the peasants Jul 1953: Fidel Castro leads a failed insurrection against the dictatorial regime of Batista in Santiago de Cuba Jun 1953: Colombia's fascist Gomez is overthrown by the military and replaced by general Gustavo Rojas Pinilla 1953: Brazil's national oil company, Petrobras, is created 1953: Figueres becomes president of Costa Rica again Aug 1954: Getulio Vargas of Brazil commits suicide after being forced by the military to resign 1954: Alfredo Stroessner becomes dictator of Paraguay 1954: An economic crisis hits Uruguay with high inflation and declining GDP June 1954: Rebels led by Castillo Armas and supported by the USA's CIA stage a coup in Guatemala to depose president Arbenz after he begins expropriating United Fruit's plantations, the end of the "Democratic Spring" Jan 1955: Costa Rica, a country without an army, is invaded from Guatemala by former Costa Rica president Rafael Calder¢n (supported by Nicaragua) but the USA stops the invasion Sep 1955: A military coup deposes Peron in Argentina 1955: Chile's inflation is 80% 1956: The conservative Camilo Ponce Enriquez (founder of the MSC) wins elections against Velasco and becomes president of Ecuador 1956: Manuel Prado is elected president of Peru with support from APRA and legalizes APRA again Dec 1956: Fidel Castro and Argentinian-born Ernesto "Che" Guevara lead a second failed insurrection against the dictatorial regime of Batista in Cuba Jan 1956: Minas Gerais' governor Juscelino Kubitschek is elected president of Brazil, despite the fact that Joao Goulart wins more votes, and founds a new capital, Brasilia, in the interior, designed by Lucio Costa 1956: Nicaragua's dictator Anastasio "Tacho" Somoza dies and is succeeded by his son Luis Somoza 1956: Hernan Siles Zuaco (UDP) is elected president of Bolivia 1957: Francois Duvalier seizes power in Haiti 1957: A National Front government ends the civil war in Colombia May 1957: Colombia's dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla resigns following widespread demonstrations 1957: The Partido Democrata Cristiano (PDC) is founded in Chile from the union of the National Falange, the Social Christian Conservative Party and the Ibanez's Agrarian Labor Party Jul 1957: The two main political parties of Colombia in exile (the Liberal Party of Alberto Lleras Camargo and the Conservative Party of Laureano Gomez) join together in the "Frente Nacional" and agree to alternate at the presidency for a period of four presidential terms 1957: Guatemala's president Castillo Armas is assassinated and replaced by Miguel Idigoras Fuentes Apr 1957: Student riots in Chile cost dozens of lives Jan 1958: Venezuela's dictator Perez Jimenez resigns and flees to the USA following widespread demonstrations 1958: Mario Echandi of the Union Nacional wins the elections in Costa Rica 1958: Chile's president Ibanez re-legalizes the PCC that forms a coalition with the Socialists, the Frente de Accion Popular (FRAP), that narrowly loses the elections to the conservative candidate and former president's son Jorge Alessandri (Salvador Allende is the candidate of the FRAP, Eduardo Frei is the candidate of the Christian Democrats) Feb 1958: Arturo Frondizi is elected president of Argentina with votes from the Peronists Jan 1958: The liberal Alberto Lleras Camargo is elected president of Colombia, ending "La Violencia" (civil war) but several regions declare independent republics, notably the communist "Marquetalia Republic" 1958: Adolfo Lopez Mateos of the PRI is elected president of Mexico 1958: The USA imposes an arms embargo on Cuba when civil war breaks out between rebels and the Batista government 1958: Ramon Villega Morales returns the Partido Liberal to power in Honduras Feb 1959: Romulo Betancourt of Accion Democratica wins the elections in Venezuela and begins a program to develop the rural countryside Jan 1959: Fidel Castro wins the revolution and installs a communist regime in Cuba, while Che Guevara summarily executes members of the Batista government May 1959: Cuba launches a socialist agrarian reform Mar 1959: Martin Echegoyen is elected president of Uruguay, the first president coming from the "Partido Nacional" since Oribe's times 1959: Leftist leader Demetrio Vallejo organizes a general strike in Mexico 1959: Venezuela's former president Perez Jimenez is extradited by the USA, the first head of state to be extradited by the USA 1960: The largest earthquake (magnitude 9.5) is recorded off the coast of Chile 1960: The population of Latin America is 200 million, half of it in Mexico and Brazil 1960: Brazil's population is 71 million 1960: Inflation spirals out of control in Brazil (2900%), Uruguay (1100%), Argentina (900%), Chile (500%) 1960: The population of Peru has doubled in ten years, thanks to European immigrants 1960: In retaliation for the USA's imposition of quotas on Venezuelan oil (to favor (Canada and Mexico), Venezuela joins Arab countries to found OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) Apr 1960: Leftists of Venezuela's Accion Democratica found the "Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria" (MIR) Jun 1960: Dominican Republic's dictator Rafael Trujillo tries to assassinate Betancour of Venezuela 1960: Sao Paulo's governor Janio Quadros is elected president of Brazil 1960: Communist guerrilla groups start Guatemala's civil war 1960: Castro is refused a meeting by USA's president Dwight Eisenhower and turns to the Soviet Union for economic and military help 1960: Velasco-Ibarra becomes president of Ecuador for the fourth time Jan 1961: Janio Quadros wins presidential elections in Brazil, inheriting from Kubitschek both hyper-inflation and huge foreign debt Aug 1961: Unable to pass austerity measures, Janio Quadros of Brazil resigns and is replaced by vice-president Joao Goulart Apr 1961: A Cuban rebel force trained by the USA's CIA tries to invade Cuba ("Bay of Pigs" invasion) 1961: The population of Lima (Peru) is 1.6 million 1961: Rafael Trujillo of the Dominican Republic is assassinated 1961: The military seize power in El Salvador 1961: The Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (Sandinista National Liberation Front) is founded in Nicaragua to fight the Somoza dictatorship, with help from Cuba, Costa Rica and Panama, and opposed by the USA 1961: Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann is arrested in Argentina Nov 1961: Ecuador's president Velasco-Ibarra is overthrown by the military and his filo-communist vice president Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy seizes power Mar 1962: The Peronist party wins the elections in Argentina but Arturo Frondizi is deposed by the army and replaced with Jose Guido 1962: The conservative Guillermo Leon Valencia is elected president of Colombia 1962: Francisco Orlich of the PLN wins the elections in Costa Rica Feb 1962: Most of Latin America's countries break political relations with Cuba Oct 1962: The USA forces the Soviet Union to stop building missile bases in Cuba, and the USA imposes an economic embargo on Cuba 1962: The variety show "Sabado Gigante" premieres on Chilean television Jul 1962: The military stages a coup when Haya de la Torre of APRA wins the elections in Peru over Odria and Fernando Belaunde Terry 1962: Brazil declares football player Pele an "official national treasure" so that he cannot be bought by European clubs 1962: Peru is the leading fishing nation in the world 1962: Julio Adalberto Rivera Carballo becomes president of El Salvador 1963: The communist "Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional" (FALN), trained and funded by Cuba, carries out terrorist attacks in Venezuela Jan 1963: Juan Bosch wins the first elections in the Republica Dominicana Sep 1963: Juan Bosch is overthrown in the Republica Dominicana Jul 1963: Arturo Illia is elected president of Argentina after the Peronists abstain from voting, and proceeds to nationalize oil industry 1963: Osvaldo Lopez Arellano seizes power in Honduras with a coup, the beginning of 18 years of military dictatorship 1963: Guatemala's president Miguel Idigoras Fuentes is ousted by the military 1963: A military coup overthrows Ecuador's president Arosemena and installs a junta Jul 1963: In a rerun of the previous presidential election Fernando Belaunde Terry, founder of the party "Accion Popular", is elected president of Peru over Haya and Odria, and creates new universities throughout the country 1963: Raul Sendic founds the revolutionary group Tupamaros in Uruguay, launching a campaign of robberies and kidnappings Jan 1964: Raul Leoni of Accion Democratica wins elections and succeeds Betancour as president of Venezuela Aug 1964: The general Rene Barrientos stages a military coup in Bolivia 1964: Colombian troops abolish the "Marquetalia Republic" 1964: Eduardo Frei-Montalva wins democratic elections in Chile over the socialist candidate Salvador Allende 1964: Paz Estenssoro is deposed by a military coup Apr 1964: After urging student riots and strikes against the military, Joao Goulart of Brazil is deposed by the military and replaced by army marshal Humberto Castelo-Branco 1964: Gustavo Diaz Ordaz of the PRI is elected president of Mexico 1964: Peru battles communist guerrillas funded and armed by Cuba 1964: Brazil's GDP grows 56% between 1964 and 1974 1965: The Marxist guerrilla "Movimiento de la Izquierda Revolucionaria" (MIR) is formed in Peru by former APRA members 1965: Uruguay's inflation is 88% 1965: Fidel Castro allows one million Cubans over five years to leave Cuba and settle in the USA, while Che Guevara leaves Cuba to promote revolutions in other countries (Congo and Bolivia) 1965: Abimael Guzman and others found the communist group "Bandera Roja" in Peru Apr 1965: The USA dispatches the marines to restore order in the Dominican Republic after the communists try a coup Jan 1966: Cuba hosts the "Solidarity Conference of the Peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America" 1966: The liberal Carlos Lleras Restrepo is elected president of Colombia and begins a massive program of land redistribution 1966: Manuel Marulanda (Pedro Antonio Marin) establishes the "Fuerza Armada Revolucionaria de Colombia" (FARC) as the military wing of the Colombian Communist Party 1966: British Guyana (Georgetown) declares its independence with Forbes Burnham as its prime minister Jun 1966: Juan Balaguer wins elections in the Republica Dominicana Jun 1966: Arturo Illia of Argentina is deposed by the army and replaced by conservative and pro-clerical general Juan Carlos Ongania Mar 1967: The Brazilian parliament elects general Artur da Costa e Silva Mar 1967: Oscar Gestido of the Colorado Party is elected president of Uruguay Dec 1967: Uruguay's president Oscar Gestido dies and is succeeded by his vice-president Jorge Pacheco Areco Mar 1966: The military allow elections and Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro is elected president of Guatemala after his brother is assassinated Mar 1966: The military regime resigns in Ecuador 1967: Cuba revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara, who was trying to spread the communist revolution to Latin America, is killed by USA agents in Bolivia 1967: Jorge Pacheco Areco of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 1967: Guatemala's writer Miguel Angel Asturias wins a Nobel Prize, the first one awarded to Latin America 1967: Nicaragua's dictator Luis Somoza dies and is succeeded by his brother Anastasio 1967: Chile's government redistributes 15 million acres of land to the peasants 1967: Fidel Sanchez Hernandez becomes president of El Salvador 1967: USA shipbuilder Daniel Ludwig begins massive logging in the Amazon forest of Brazil 1967: 700 landowners own 50% of Peru's land, or 2% of the population owns 90% of the productive land Oct 1968: As inflation reaches 150%, Fernando Belaunde Terry of Peru is deposed by a leftist military revolution led by general Juan Velasco Alvarado, who enacts a massive socialist-inspired agrarian reform 1968: The USA ambassador is assassinated by communist rebels in Guatemala 1968: Velasco wins elections again in Ecuador 1968: A military coup installs Omar Torrijos Herrera as president of Panama Jul 1968: 300 students are killed by the police during riots in Mexico between july and october 1968: The Olympic Games are held in Mexico 1969: El Salvador invades Honduras following a football match 1969: Rafael Caldera of COPEI is elected president of Venezuela and re-legalizes the left-wing parties Aug 1969: Following a stroke by Costa e Silva, the military appoint general Emilio Garrastazu Medici as president of Brazil, but guerrillas fight against the government through kidnappings and bombings 1969: The Andean Common Market is formed by Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru 1969: The subway of Ciudad de Mexico opens 1970: The population of Peru is 13.6 million 1970: Mexico's population is 48.3 million 1970: Brazil's population is 93 million and the number of university students has increased from 144,000 in 1964 to 430,000 1970: Sao Paulo is the largest city in Brazil with 6 million people Jun 1970: Following strikes in Cordoba, Argentina's dictator Ongania is deposed by another military coup that installs general Roberto Levingston 1970: The conservative Misael Pastrana Borrero is elected president of Colombia, narrowly defeating former dictator Rojas Pinilla, but anarchy still reigns 1970: Brazil's population is 90 million 1970: Fidel Castro launches a plan to produce ten million tons of sugar 1970: Luis Echeverria of the PRI is elected president of Mexico 1970: Earthquake in Peru Nov 1970: The left-wing Popular United led by Salvador Allende wins democratic elections in Chile, the first Marxist politician in the world to be elected democratically, who begins a program of nationalization of foreign companies (copper, coal, steel) and distribution of land to the poor 1970: Brazil wins its third world cup 1970: Peak of the Tupamaros insurgency in Uruguay, with kidnappings and assassinations 1970: The population of Latin America is 250 million 1970: Figueres of the PLN wins the elections again in Costa Rica 1970: The center-right Carlos Arana Osorio wins elections in Guatemala 1971: Guzman leads a split in "Bandera Roja" that creates the communist group "Sendero Luminoso" (Shining Path) in Peru 1971: Venezuela is the fifth producer of oil in the world Mar 1971: Following more riots in Cordoba, Levingston is replaced by general Alejandro Lanusse 1971: Hundreds of students are killed in Mexico's worst student riots 1971: JeanClaude Duvalier succeeds his father as dictator of Haiti 1971: Hugo Banzer stages a coup in Bolivia and assumes absolute power 1971: Chile's communist poet Pablo Neruda is awarded the Nobel Prize in literature 1971: About one thousand people are murdered in Guatemala by right and left terrorists Dec 1971: A large scale demonstration is held in Chile against Allende's government Mar 1972: Juan Marma Bordaberry becomes president of Uruguay, winning against the "Partido Nacional" as well as an alliance of left-wing parties called the "Frente Amplio", and defeats the Tupamaros 1972: Brazil's economy has grown an average 10% over four years 1972: Cuba joins the Soviet Union's COMECON Feb 1972: Ecuador's president Velasco is overthrown by general Guillermo Rodriguez Lara 1972: Large reserves of oil are discovered in Ecuador 1972: Earthquake in Managua, Nicaragua Oct 1972: Large-scale demonstrations against Allende's government spread throughout Chile Sep 1973: Juan Peron returns from exile and wins Argentina's presidential elections for the second time, the first election since the military dictatorships of the 1960s 1973: Venezuelas joins the Andean Common Market May 1973: The Peronista Hector Campora becomes president of Argentina and appoints leftists to university positions 1973: The USA and Cuba sign a treaty to prosecute plane hijackers, after more than 80 airplanes have been hijacked since 1961 to Cuba Feb 1973: A military dictatorship in Uruguay bans socialism, ending 70 years od democratic governments, although Bordaberry remains formally president Sep 1973: As inflation hits 500% and GDP declines 7%, and strikes paralyze the country, Chile's president Allende is overthrown by general Augusto Pinochet, who begins a dictatorship that will kill 3,197 civilians in 16 years 1973: Mexican's peasants found "Tierra y Libertad", a Maoist colonia in Monterrey 1973: Large oil reserves are discovered in Colombia 1974: The liberal Alfonso Lopez Michaelson becomes president of Colombia following the dissolution of the Frente Nacional, but he still forms a government of coalition while the country plunges into anarchy 1974: Oil exports double in Ecuador over the year before 1974: Exports boom in Bolivia due to oil and gas 1974: Cuba's population is 9.5 million Mar 1974: Carlos Andres Perez of Accion Democratica wins presidential elections in Venezuela Mar 1974: The general Ernesto Geisel is appointed president of Brazil after the oil crisis has caused a deep recession Jul 1974: Isabel Peron, the second wife of Juan Peron, becomes president of Argentina at his death, the first woman to become president in the Americas 1974: A hurricane kills thousands of people in Honduras 1974: Mexico plunges into an economic crisis, after 20 years of rapid growth (average +6.5%) 1974: Hyper-inflation in Peru 1974: The Sao Paulo (Brazil) subway opens 1974: The Trans-Amazon road opens in Brazil 1974: Daniel Oduber of the PLN is elected president of Costa Rica 1974: Eric Gairy leads Grenada to independence from Britain 1975: Honduras' Lopez resigns due to a scandal and is replaced by Juan Alberto Melgar Castro 1975: Chile's population is 11 million 1975: There are fewer democracies in Latin America than there were in 1955 1975: The subway of Santiago (Chile) opens 1975: Venezuela nationalizes USA-owned iron mines 1975: Colombia is rocked by terrorist attacks and strikes Sep 1975: Peru's president Velasco is replaced by general Francisco Morales Bermudez, who launches an economic austerity program to curb inflation 1975: About 1,000 people die in political violence in Argentina 1975: Large oil reserves are discovered in Mexico TM, ®, Copyright © 2008 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. 1976: Anti-Castro terrorists (led by Luis Posada Carriles and funded by the USA's CIA) blow up a Cuban airliner 1976: Chile withdraws from the Andean Common Market 1976: Chile undergoes an "economic miracle" with average GDP growth of 7% Jan 1976: Venezuela nationalizes all oil fields under Petroleos Venezolanos 1976: Inflation is 27% in Mexico Jun 1976: The military appoints Aparicio Mindez-Manfredini of the "Partido Nacional" to be president of Uruguay, while thousands of dissidents are jailed Mar 1976: After inflation hits 750%, Isabel Peron of Argentina is deposed by general Jorge Videla in a military coup, and 1,300 leftists are kill in the repression that follows Jan 1976: Rodriguez Lara is ousted in Ecuador and replaced by a military junta Dec 1976: Jose-Lopez Portillo of the PRI is elected president of Mexico 1977: the USA suspends military aid to Guatemala to protest civil rights abuses by the right-wing government 1977: Venezuela's population is 13 million 1977: Brazil is the second largest exporter of agricultural products in the world after the USA Jul 1977: Peru uses the army to break strikes 1977: Pinochet abolishes the secret police in Chile Feb 1977: The general Carlos Humberto Romero becomes president of El Salvador in rigged elections, and the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front is founded in El Salvador to fight the military dictatorship 1977: Mothers of students who disappeared under the repression of Videla's rule stage demonstrations in Argentina 1978: The general Romeo Lucas Garcia is appointed president of Guatemala 1978: Antonio Guzman wins the elections and replaces Balaguer, the first time in the Dominican Republic's history that an incumbent president peacefully surrenders power to the opposition 1978: The general Policarpo Paz Garcia seizes power in Honduras 1978: Indios are massacred by the army at Panzos, Guatemala 1978: Hugo Banzer rigs elections in Bolivia to have general Juan Pereda elected instead of the left-wing coalition of former president Hernan Siles (UDP) 1978: The liberal Julio Turbay is elected president of Colombia 1978: serial killer Pedro Alonso begins a killing spree that would leave more than 300 people dead in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru 1978: Dominica gains independence from Britain 1978: Nicaragua's regime kills opposition leader Pedro Joaquin Chamorro 1978: Luis Herrera Campins of COPEI wins the elections in Venezuela 1978: The right-wing Rodrigo Carazo is elected president of Costa Rica 1978: Brazil's GDP has quintupled since 1960 (making it the eighth industrial power in the West), and the number of college students has increased from less than 100,000 to almost 1.5 million July 1979: Led by Eden Pastora and Daniel Ortega, the Sandinistas overthrow the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua 1979: National elections are held again in Bolivia but Paz Estenssoro (MNR) and Siles (UDP) win the same amount of votes 1979: Brazil is the sixth most populous nation in the world 1979: Maurice Bishop of the New Jewel Movement overthrows the government of Eric Gairy in Grenada 1979: The Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) subway opens 1979: The general Joao Baptista Figueiredo is appointed president of Brazil by the military 1979: Jaime Roldos wins democratic elections and becomes Ecuador's president 1979: Peru enacts a new constitution, largely drawn by Velasco and returns to democratic rule 1979: For the first time Mexico allows the Communist Party to run for elections 1979: Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo wins rigged elections in Brazil 1979: The Canal Zone becomes part again of Panama but the canal is still controlled by the USA 1979: The USA suspends the military treaty with Brazil to protest violations of human rights by Brazil's dictator 1980: Former Bolivia's dictator Banzer forms the ADN party (Accion Democr tica Nacionalista) and loses elections against Siles (UDP) but general Luis Garc¡a Meza seizes power 1980: Only two South American countries have had a democratic regime for at least a decade, Venezuela and Colombia 1980: Brazil's economy grows at an average 7% annually over four years and its population has reached 120 million (12 million just in Sao Paulo) Feb 1980: The Partido dos Trabalhadores (Workers Party) is founded in Brazil 1980: The population of Ciudad de Mexico is 14 million, one of the largest cities in the world, and grows by 500,000 people a year 1980: Nicaragua's dictator Somoza is assassinated in Paraguay and Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega seizes power May 1980: In the first election since the restoration of democracy, Fernando Belaunde Terry is reelected president of Peru while "Sendero Luminoso" carries out its first operation 1980: The civilian Jose Napoleon Duarte is elected president of El Salvador by an overwhelming majority, the first civilian president since 1931 1980: More than 800 people are killed in Jamaica during the elections 1980: Violeta Chamorro splits with the Sandinistas in Nicaragua 1980: Eugenia Charles becomes prime minister of Dominica (and first black female leader in the world) 1980: Fidel Castro allows 125,000 people to leave Cuba for the USA June 1981: Eden Pastora resigns from the Nicaraguan government and organizes a resistance movement in the south, part of the "Contras" 1981: Ronald Reagan funds "Contras" based in Honduras to fight Nicaragua's communist regime of the Sandinistas 1981: Roberto Suazo Cordova is elected president of Honduras, the first civilian president in 18 years 1981: Belize, Britain's last colony in the Americas, becomes independent 1981: The population of Lima (Peru) is 4.1 million 1981: Ecuador's president Roldos dies in an plane crash 1981: The military appoints general Gregorio Alvarez as president of Uruguay 1981: Argentine dictator Videla relinquishes power to Roberto Viola after 6.500 dissidents have "disappeared" 1981: Torrijo of Panama dies in a plane crash Dec 1981: USA-trained Atlacatl death squads massacre 900 people in El Mozote, El Salvador 1982: Siles Zuazo becomes president of Bolivia, replacing the military junta with a civilian government 1982: Salvador Jorge Blanco wins elections in the Dominican Republic 1982: Roberto Suarez Cordoba is elected president of Honduras 1982: Brazil and Paraguay inaugurate the itaipu Dam on the Upper Parana river 1982: Siles (UDP) is recognized as winner of the 1980 elections and finally installed as president 1982: The right-wing party ARENA wins parliamentary elections in El Salvador 1982: Miguel Hurtado de la Madrid is elected president of Mexico 1982: Belisario Betancur is elected president in Colombia 1982: Garcia is deposed and general Rios Montt seizes power in Guatemala and starts a terror campaign 1982: Argentina invades the Falkland islands causing a war with Britain 1982: Desire Bouterse seizes power in Suriname 1982: Luis Alberto Monge is elected president of Costa Rica 1983: Following defeat in the Falklands war, the military junta collapses and Raul Alfonsin is elected president of Argentina 1983: The Caracas (Venezuela) subway opens 1983: Venezuela devalues its currency ("black friday") 1983: Anti-Pinochet demonstrations take place in Chile 1983: Rios Montt is deposed in Guatemala 1983: Manuel Noriega becomes dictator of Panama 1983: Bolivia holds the first free elections October 1983: The USA invades Grenada and deposes Hudson Austin who has seized power after Bishop was murdered 1984: Daniel Ortega Saavedra is appointed president of Nicaragua by the Sandinista junta 1984: Jaime Lusinchi of Accion Democratica wins presidential elections in Venezuela 1984: The Marxist-leaning "Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru" (MRTA) is formed in Peru 1984: Leon Febres Cordero wins elections in Ecuador 1985: The Bolivian parliament chooses Victor Paz Estenssoro as president 1985: The population of Latin America is 400 million 1985: Julio Marma Sanguinetti of the "Partido Colorado" is the first civilian president of Uruguay after the military dictatorship, and dominates Uruguay's politics till 2000 1985: Burnham dies and Desmond Hoyte become president of Guyana May 1985: The USA imposes a trade embargo on Nicaragua 1985: The military junta collapses and Tancredo Neves is elected president of Brazil, the first civilian president in 21 years, but dies and is replaced by his vice-president Joseph Sarney 1985: Alan Garcia of APRA is elected president of Peru, leading to a massive economic crisis, corruption scandals and increased political violence 1985: The M-19 guerrilla group kills 11 of the 25 Supreme Court Justices of Colombia 1985: An earthquake in Ciudad de Mexico kills thousands of people 1985: Panama's president Noriega orders the assassination of opposition leader Hugo Spadafora 1986: the Iran-contra scandal in the USA reveals that the USA sold arms to Iran to fund the contras in Nicaragua 1986: Juan Balaguer is reelected in the Republica Dominicana 1986: JeanClaude Duvalier is deposed in a military coup in Haiti 1986: Oscar Arias Sanchez is elected president of Costa Rica 1986: Vinicio Cerezo wins elections and becomes the first civilian president of Guatemala in 25 years 1986: Jose Azcona del Hoyo is elected president of Honduras 1986: Earthquake in El Salvador 1986: The liberal Virgilio Barco Vargas is elected president of Colombia 1987: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras sign a peace plan brokered by Costa Rica 1987: Brazil's inflation is 338% 1987: Drug cartels terrorize Colombia 1987: Nicaragua's dictator Daniel Ortega and the opposition sign a peace agreement 1988: Carlos Salinas is elected president of Mexico 1988: Alfredo Cristiani of ARENA is elected president of El Salvador 1988: A military coup installs Prosper Avril as dictator of Haiti 1988: Pinochet loses a referendum in Chile and resigns, ending the military dictatorship 1988: A new constitution is proclaimed in Brazil 1988: Ramsewak Shankar is elected president in Suriname's first democratic elections 1988: Rodrigo Borja Cevallos wins elections in Ecuador 1989: Jaime Paz-Zamora is elected president of Bolivia 1989: More than 3,000 people are murdered in Medellin alone in Colombia at the peak of the power of the Medellin drug cartel 1989: Carlos Andres Perez of Accion Democratica wins again presidential elections in Venezuela 1989: Carlos Menem of Arab descent is elected president of Argentina 1989: Luis Alberto Lacalle Herrera of the "Partido Nacional" is elected president of Uruguay 1989: Fernando Collor de Mello is elected president of Brazil 1989: In the first elections since the return to democracy, Patricio Aylwin of the Christian Democratic Party is elected president of Chile 1989: Paraguay's dictator Stroessner is deposed in a coup 1989: The USA invades Panama and deposes Manuel Noriega, arrested for drug trafficking and deported to the USA, and Guillermo Endara wins the first democratic elections 1990: The liberal Cesar Gaviria Trujillo is elected president of Colombia 1990: Sao Paulo in Brazil has 14 million people 1990: Jorge Serrano, a former Rios Montt advisor, wins elections in Guatemala 1990: Argentina's inflation is 8,000% and the economy has shrunk 10% in a decade 1990: Brazil's inflation is 5,000% 1990: Alberto Fujimori wins elections in Peru, while 3,384 Peruvians die in political violence just in 1990 1990: Rafael Callejas is elected president of Honduras 1990: The right-wing candidate Rafael Calderon wins elections in Costa Rica 1990: At the Cartagena (Colombia) "Drug Summit" the presidents of Bolivia, Colombia, Peru and the USA join in the "war on drugs" February 1990: The Sandinistas allow free elections in return for the end of contras insurgency, and Violeta Chamorro wins the presidency of Nicaragua 1991: a ferry capsizes in Haiti killing over 500 people 1991: Johan Kraag is elected president of Suriname 1991: El Salvador's government and the rebels sign a peace agreement 1991: Colombia proclaims a new constitution 1991: Jean-Bertrand Aristide wins the first elections in Haiti but is immediately deposed by the military 1992: Sixto Duran Ballen wins elections in Ecuador 1992: The first democratic elections in Guyana are won by Cheddi Jagan 1992: Brazilian president Collor is impeached by parliament and replaced with vice president Itamar Franco Mar 1992: An anti-Israel bomb (sponsored by Iran and Hezbollah) in Buenos Aires kills 85 people 1992: Mexico City has 18 million people, Sao Paulo has 15 million 1992: Hugo Chavez stages a failed coup in Venezuela 1992: Youstol Dispage Fromscaruffi dies 1992: Peru's president Fujimori dissolves Parliament September 1992: Abimael Guzman, leader of Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), is captured by the Peruvian army 1992: the first "World Summit" is held in Rio 1992: Earthquake in Nicaragua 1993: US-educated Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada (MNR) is elected president of Bolivia 1993: Carlos Andres Perez, accused of corruption, is forced to resign and replaced by Jose Velasquez 1993: Pablo Escobar, the most famous druglord of Colombia, is killed by the police 1993: Mexico joins the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 1993: Mexico joins the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the USA and Canada 1993: Juan Carlos Wasmosy of the Partido Colorado wins the first free elections in Paraguay 1993: Carlos Reina is elected president of Honduras 1993: US-educated Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada is elected president of Bolivia 1993: Guatemala's president attemps a coup to become dictator but is forced to flee the country 1994: Fidel Castro allows 50,000 people to leave Cuba 1994: Jose Maria Figueres is elected president of Costa Rica 1994: Rafael Caldera of COPEI is elected again president of Venezuela 1994: Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Christian Democratic Party is elected president of Chile 1994: Finance minister Fernando Henrique Cardoso wins presidential elections in Brazil 1994: Guerrilla rebellion in Mexico by the Zapatista National Liberation Army 1994: Armando Calderon Sol of ARENA is elected president of El Salvador 1994: Sanguinetti is elected president of Uruguay again 1994: Ernesto Zedillo wins presidential elections in Mexico 1994: The USA invades Haiti to restore Aristide as president 1994: Chile joins the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 1994: The liberal Ernesto Samper Pizano is elected president of Colombia 1995: Chiapas indios are killed during protests in Mexico 1995: Rene Preval wins Haiti's elections 1995: Eugenia Charles resigns from prime minister of Dominica 1995: Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay form of the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) 1995: The Guatemalan army commits a massacre in Chajul 1996: Alvaro Arzu is elected president of Guatemala and ends the civil war 1996: Leonel Fernandez wins elections in the Republica Dominicana, the first victory by Bosch's Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) 1996: FARC kills 34 soldiers in Colombia 1996: Arnoldo Aleman is elected president of Nicaragua 1996: 200,000 coca growers march in protest in Colombia 1996: Abdala Bucaram becomes president of Ecuador TM, ®, Copyright © 2008 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. 1996: Jules Wijdenbosch is elected president of Suriname 1997: Former dictator Hugo Banzer is elected president of Bolivia 1997: Janet Jagan becomes the first white and the first female president of Guyana 1997: Carlos Flores of the Partido Liberal is elected president of Honduras 1997: Peru defeats the "Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru" (MRTA) 1997: Ecuadorian president Abdala Bucaram is ousted by Congress for corruption, beginning a period of political instability (six presidents in 8 years) 1998: Peru joins the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 1998: FARC kills 62 soldiers in Colombia 1998: Thousands die in Nicaragua due to a hurricane 1998: The conservative (and former television and press journalist) Andres Pastrana, son of Misael, is elected president of Colombia 1998: The socialist candidate Hugo Chavez wins elections in Venezuela 1998: Miguel Angel Rodriguez is elected president of Costa Rica 1999: The last leader of Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) is captured by the Peruvian army 1999: Colombia becomes the main recipient of USA military aid 1999: Francisco Flores of ARENA is elected president of El Salvador 1999: Fernando de la Rua is elected president of Argentina 1999: Bharrat Jagdeo becomes president of Guyana 1999: Arnulfo Arias Madrid's wife Mireya Moscoso is elected president of Panama and the USA returns the Canal to Panama 1999: Colombia under siege by the marxist guerrilla group FARC 1999: Hugo Chavez seizes control of all Venezuelan institutions 1999: Luis Gonzalez Macchi of the Partido Colorado is appointed president of Paraguay 2000: Jorge Batlle of the "Partido Colorado" is elected president of Uruguay 2000: Brazil's population is 170 million 2000: Hipolito Mejia wins elections in the Republica Dominicana 2000: Mexico's population is 100 million 2000: Cuba's population is 11 million plus 1.2 million Cuban-Americans in the USA 2000: Latin America's population is 513 million 2000: More than 1,000 street children are murdered by death squads in Honduras 2000: The Argentinian economy collapses 2000: Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori is forced to resign while on a visit to Japan 2000: Aristide wins elections in Haiti 2000: Ronald Venetiaan is elected president of Suriname 2000: The socialist candidate Ricardo Lagos wins elections in Chile 2000: Vicente Fox becomes the first opposition candidate (non-PRI) to win presidential elections in Mexico 2000: Alfonso Portillo is elected president of Guatemala 2001: Banzer resignes as president of Bolivia because of cancer 2001: Earthquake in El Salvador 2001: Alejandro Toledo wins elections in Peru 2001: Riots in Argentina due to economic crisis lead to the resignation of president La Rua and two years of political chaos 2001: Banzer resignes as president of Bolivia because of cancer 2001: Enrique Bolanos is elected president of Nicaragua 2002: Brazil wins its fifth world cup 2002: Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada is re-elected president of Bolivia but a defender of coca growers, Evo Morales, comes second 2002: The liberal Alvaro Uribe, whose father was assassinated by FARC, is elected president of Colombia 2002: Millions of Venezuelans go on strike for months, demanding Chavez's resignations (he is briefly overthrown but then reinstated) 2002: Vladimiro Montesinos, wanted by Peru on allegations of corruption and blackmailing, is arrested in Venezuela 2002: Fighting between communist terrorists and right-wing paramilitaries leaves 119 civilians dead in Bojaya, Colombia 2002: Socialist leader Luiz Inacio Lula of the Partido dos Trabalhadores (Workers Party) wins the Brazilian elections 2002: Ricardo Maduro of the Partido Nacional is elected president of Honduras 2002: Abel Pacheco is elected president of Costa Rica 2002: Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada is re-elected president of Bolivia but a defender of coca growers, Evo Morales, comes second 2003: The socialist candidate Nestor Kirchner is elected president of Argentina, the sixth in 18 months 2003: Nicanor Duarte Frutos of the Partido Colorado wins presidential elections in Paraguay 2003: Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua sign a free trade agreement with the USA (CAFTA) 2003: Bolivian president Sanchez de Lozada resignes following weeks of violent protests throughout the country 2003: Oscar Berger wins democratic elections in Guatemala 2003: Castro's regime in Cuba arrests dozens of dissidents, the worst crackdown on the opposition in two decades 2003: A landslide in Bolivia kills 400 people 2003: Brazil, India and South Africa form the "G3", an economic forum for emerging countries 2003: Bolivian president Sanchez de Lozada resignes following weeks of violent protests throughout the country 2004: An investigation by the USA senate unveils that Pinochet hid money abroad 2004: Leonel Fernandez wins elections again in the Republica Dominicana 2004: Following widespread riots, Aristide flees Haiti and is replaced by Gerard Latortue 2004: Tony Saca of ARENA is elected president of El Salvador 2004: Martin Torrijos, son of the former general, is elected president of Panama 2004: Former Costa Rica's presidents Jose Maria Figueres, Miguel Angel Rodriguez and Rafael Angel Calderon are investigated over allegations of corruption 2004: A fire in Honduras kills 102 convicts 2004: FARC kills 34 people in Colombia 2004: A fire in a shopping mall in Paraguay kills about 300 people 2004: Brazil launches its first rocket into space 2004: Left-wing candidate Tabare Vazquez wins Uruguay's presidential election 2004: Latin America posts the biggest economic growth since the 1980s due to exports of raw material to China 2004: Gangsters kill 23 passengers a local bus in northern Honduras 2004: A fire at a nightclub in Buenos Aires (Argentina) kills 174 people 2004: Guerrillas from the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) kill 17 peasants at a New Year's Eve party 2005: The socialist candidate Tabare Vazquez is elected president of Uruguay, the fifth socialist leader to be elected in a few years in Latin America (after Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela) 2005: Brazil's is the fifth most populous country in the world with 188 million people and Mexico is the 11th with 107 million, Sao Paulo and Ciudad de Mexico rank among the 10th largest mega-cities in the world 2005: Ecuador's president Lucio Gutierrez flees the country after mass protests against his dictatorial style 2005: Bolivian President Carlos Mesa resigns after mass protests 2005: Colombia's right-wing paramilitary organization United Self-Defence Forces of Colombia (AUC) disbands 2005: Manuel Zelaya of the center-right Partido Liberal is elected president of Honduras 2005: Guatemala is devastated by a hurricane 2005: Former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori is arrested in Chile 2005: Parties allied to Venezuela's president Chavez win 100% of the votes in elections boycotted by the opposition 2005: Leftist candidate Evo Morales wins elections in Bolivia and becomes the first indigenous president of a South American nation, and the fifth Bolivian president in four years 2005: Michelle Bachelet is elected Chile's first woman president 2005: Venezuela and Cuba launch the Alternativa Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra America or ALBA, an anti-USA alliance 2006: Rene Preval wins Haiti's elections 2006: More than 2,000 Mexicans die in drug-related gangland-style killings 2006: Portia Simpson Miller is appointed prime minister by the majority party of Jamaica 2006: 22,000 people have been kidnapped in Colombia in a decade 2006: Oscar Arias is reelected president of Costa Rica 2006: Former dictator of Paraguay, Alfredo Stroessner, dies in exile in Brazil 2006: Fidel Castro of Cuba, Evo Morals of Bolivia and Hugo Chavez of Bolivia sign a "people's trade agreement" 2006: Gang violence, particularly by the First Command of the Capital (PCC), causes more than 100 deaths in the state of Sao Paolo, Brazil 2006: Alan Garcia is reelected president of Peru 2006: Felipe Calderon is narrowly elected president of Mexico 2006: Venezuela purchases $3 billion worth of arms from Russia 2006: Former Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega wins Nicaragua's elections for president 2006: Leftist candidate Rafael Correa wins elections in Ecuador 2006: An ailing Fidel Castro is de facto succeeded by his brother Raul as the helm of Cuba 2006: Gangs attack buses and police across Rio de Janeiro killing 18 2006: Evo Morals of Bolivia launches a nationalization plan 2007: Venezuela de facto nationalizes all foreign oil projects 2007: Large oil reserves are discovered in Brazil 2007: Chavez shuts down Venezuela's oldest private tv station, Radio Caracas Television 2007: The Colombian police arrest drug lord Diego Montoya 2007: Bruce Golding wins democratic elections in Jamaica 2007: The socialist candidate Alvaro Colom wins elections in Guatemala and becomes the first left-wing president ever 2007: Cristina Fernandez, the wife of outgoing president Nestor Kirchner, is elected president of Argentina, while it is discovered that her campaign was financed by Hugo Chavez of Venezuela 2007: 40% of Chile's exports go to Asian Pacific countries 2008: Rondell Rawlins carries out a campaign of mass murders in Guyana 2008: Cuba's dictator Fidel Castro announces retirement 2008: FARC commander Raul Reyes is killed by Colombian forces during a raid inside Ecuador 2008: The Mexican police arrest drug lord Gustavo Rivera Martinez 2008: Honduras' president Zelaya converts to Chavez's leftist ideology and Honduras joins ALBA 2008: Argentina is paralyzed by protests against an export tax 2008: Colombian soldiers free Western hostages held for years by the FARC 2008: Fernando Lugo wins presidential elections in Paraguay and ends the rule of the Partido Colorado that lasted since 1947 2008: Mass demonstrations in the eastern provinces of Bolivia against president Evo Morales' plans to redistribute revenues from natural gas exports 2008: Ecuador approves a new constitution 2008: More than 6,000 people die in violence related to organized crime in Mexico (a 48% jump over the previous year) 2008: Latin America's population is 569 million, of which 38% is in Brazil and 22% in Mexico jan 2009: Bolivia approves a new constitution mar 2009: Mauricio Funes of former Marxist guerrilla group "Farabundo Marti Liberation Front" (FMLN) wins El Salvador's presidential election Apr 2009: Colombia arrests the country's most wanted drug lord, Daniel Rendon Herrera, known as "Don Mario" Apr 2009: Peru's former president Alberto Fujimori is sentenced to 25 years in prison for political homicides committed during his presidency May 2009: Ricardo Martinelli, a tycoon of the conservative party, wins elections in Panama Jun 2009: A military coup ousts Honduran president Manuel Zelaya and Parliament elects Porfirio Lobo to replace him 2009: An epidemics of "swine flu" is first recorded in Mexico jul 2009: The Colombia government accuses Venezuela of supplying weapons to FARC guerrillas Dec 2009: Mexico kills Arturo Beltran Leyva, a brutal druglord Dec 2009: Mexico legalizes gay marriage Dec 2009: Venezuela arrests several tycoons, including the country's richest man, Ricardo Fernandez Dec 2009: Venezuela's inflation reaches 27%, the highest in Latin America 2009: More than 7,000 people die in Mexico of drug-related violence in just one year 2009: 16047 people are murdered in Venezuela in one year (three times more than in the civil war of Iraq) 2009: Chilean anarchist Mauricio Morales is killed by the bomb that he is carrying Jan 2010: Sebastian Pinera is elected president of Chile, the first time since 1958 that a right-wing politician wins a democratic election Jan 2010: Porfirio Lobo is elected president of Honduras Jan 2010: An earthquake kills 230,000 people in Haiti Feb 2010: Laura Chinchilla is elected president of Costa Rica, the first female president in the country's history Feb 2010: Venezuela hires Cuba's vice-president Ramiro Valdes Feb 2010: A Spanish judge accuses Venezuela of having supported a deal between Colombia's terrorists FARC and Spain's terrorists ETA to assassinate Colombia's president May 2010: 11 people are killed Kingston, Jamaica, when troops storm the stronghold of drug lord Christopher "Dudus" Coke Jun 2010: Former defense minister Juan Manuel Santos wins presidential elections in Colombia 2010: Latin American economies recover from the recession and grow faster than any region except China, with Brazil posting its fastest growth in 24 years Jun 2010: Cuba releases 52 political prisoners Jul 2010: Argentina becomes the first country in Latin America approve same-sex marriages Aug 2010: Raul Castro enacts free-market reforms in Cuba Aug 2010: The dead bodies of 72 Central American migrants are found in northeast Mexico near the border with Texas Sep 2010: Soldiers kill 25 drug cartel members during a gunbattle in Ciudad Mier in Tamaulipas, Mexico Sep 2010: Colombian troops kill 22 guerrillas of FARC Oct 2010: Chile rescues 33 miners trapped deep underground for 69 days Nov 2010: Dilma Rousseff is elected to become Brazil's first woman president Nov 2010: Gangsters kill 14 people in Honduras Dec 2010: A fire in a jail in the Chilean capital Santiago kills at least 83 inmates   One year on, Haiti still struggling to recover from catastrophic earthquake United Nations, New York, 11 January 2011 - On the eve of the first anniversary of the devastating earthquake that killed 220,000 Haitians and made 1.5 million others homeless, United Nations humanitarian agencies today looked back at a year of achievements, albeit at times spotty, and forward to the enormous challenges still ahead. Full story: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37249&Cr=haiti&Cr1= The civil rights movement of the 1960's have left many people with the belief that the slave trade was exclusively a European/USA phenomenon and only evil white people were to blame for it. This is a simplicistic scenario that hardly reflects the facts. Thousands of records of transactions are available on a CDROM prepared by Harvard University and several comprehensive books have been published recently on the origins of modern slavery (namely, Hugh Thomas' The Slave Trade and Robin Blackburn's The Making Of New World Slavery) that shed new light on centuries of slave trading. What these records show is that the modern slave trade flourished in the early middle ages, as early as 869, especially between Muslim traders and western African kingdoms. For moralists, the most important aspect of that trade should be that Muslims were selling goods to the African kingdoms and the African kingdoms were paying with their own people. In most instances, no violence was necessary to obtain those slaves. Contrary to legends and novels and Hollywood movies, the white traders did not need to savagely kill entire tribes in order to exact their tribute in slaves. All they needed to do is bring goods that appealed to the kings of those tribes. The kings would gladly sell their own subjects. This explains why slavery became "black". Ancient slavery, e.g. under the Roman empire, would not discriminate: slaves were both white and black (so were Emperors and Popes). In the middle ages, all European countries outlawed slavery (of course, Western powers retained countless "civilized" ways to enslave their citizens, but that's another story), whereas the African kingdoms happily continued in their trade. Therefore, only colored people could be slaves, and that is how the stereotype for African-American slavery was born. It was not based on an ancestral hatred of blacks by whites, but simply on the fact that blacks were the only ones selling slaves, and they were selling people of their own race. (To be precise, Christians were also selling Muslim slaves captured in war, and Muslims were selling Christian slaves captured in war, but neither the Christians of Europe nor the Muslims of Africa and the Middle East were selling their own people). Then the Muslim trade of African slaves came to a stop when Arab domination was reduced by the Crusades. (Note: Arabs continued to capture and sell slaves, but only in the Mediterranean. In fact, Robert Davis estimates that 1.25 million European Christians were enslaved by the "barbary states" of northern Africa. The USA bombed Morocco, Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli in 1801 precisely to stop that Arab slave trade of Christians. The rate of mortality of those Christian slaves in the Islamic world was roughly the same as the mortality rate in the Atlantic slave trade of the same period.) Christians took over in black Africa, though. The first ones were the Portuguese, who, applying an idea that originally developed in Italian seatrading cities, and often using Italian venture capital, started exploiting sub-Saharan slaves in the 1440s to support the economy of the sugar plantations (mainly for their own African colonies of Sao Tome and Madeira). The Dutch were the first, apparently, to import black slaves into North America, but black slaves had already been employed all over the world, including South and Central America. We tend to focus on what happened in North America because the United States would eventually fight a war over slavery (and it's in the U.S. that large sectors of the population would start condemning slavery, contrary to the indifference that Muslims and most Europeans showed for it). Even after Europeans began transporting black slaves to America, most trade was just that: "trade". In most instances, the Europeans did not need to use any force to get those slaves. The slaves were "sold" more or less legally by their (black) owners. Scholars estimate that about 12,000,000 Africans were sold by Africans to Europeans (most of them before 1776, when the USA wasn't yet born) and 17,000,000 were sold to Arabs. The legends of European mercenaries capturing free people in the jungle are mostly just that: legends. A few mercenaries certainly stormed peaceful tribes and committed terrible crimes, but that was not the rule. There was no need to risk their lives, so most of them didn't: they simply purchased people. As an African-American scholar (Nathan Huggins) has written, the "identity" of black Africans is largely a white invention: sub-Saharan Africans never felt like they were one people, they felt (and still feel) that they belonged to different tribes. The distinctions of tribe were far stronger than the distinctions of race. Everything else is true: millions of slaves died on ships and of diseases, millions of blacks worked for free to allow the Western economies to prosper, and the economic interests in slavery became so strong that the southern states of the United States opposed repealing it. But those millions of slaves were just one of the many instances of mass exploitation: the industrial revolution was exported to the USA by enterpreuners exploiting millions of poor immigrants from Europe. The fate of those immigrants was not much better than the fate of the slaves in the South. As a matter of fact, many slaves enjoyed far better living conditions in the southern plantations than European immigrants in the industrial cities (which were sometimes comparable to concentration camps). It is not a coincidence that slavery was abolished at a time when millions of European and Chinese immigrants provided the same kind of cheap labor. It is also fair to say that, while everybody tolerated it, very few whites practiced slavery: in 1860 there were 385,000 USA citizens who owned slaves, or about 1.4% of the white population (there were 27 million whites in the USA). That percentage was zero in the states that did not allow slavery (only 8 million of the 27 million whites lived in states that allowed slavery). Incidentally, in 1830 about 25% of the free Negro slave masters in South Carolina owned 10 or more slaves: that is a much higher percentage (ten times more) than the number of white slave owners. Thus slave owners were a tiny minority (1.4%) and it was not only whites: it was just about anybody who could, including blacks themselves. Moral opposition to slavery was widespread even before Lincoln, and throughout Europe. On the other hand, opposition to slavery was never particularly strong in Africa itself, where slavery is slowly being eradicated only in our time. One can suspect that slavery would have remained common in most African kingdoms until this day: what crushed slavery in Africa was that all those African kingdoms became colonies of western European countries that (for one reason or another) eventually decided to outlaw slavery. When, in the 1960s, those African colonies regained their independence, numerous cases of slavery resurfaced. And countless African dictators behaved in a way that makes a slave owner look like a saint. Given the evidence that this kind of slavery was practiced by some Africans before it was practiced by some Americans, that it was abolished by all whites and not by some Africans, and that some Africans resumed it the moment they could, why would one keep blaming the USA but never blame, say, Ghana or the Congo? The more we study it, the less blame we have to put on the USA for the slave trade with black Africa: it was pioneered by the Arabs, its economic mechanism was invented by the Italians and the Portuguese, it was mostly run by western Europeans, and it was conducted with the full cooperation of many African kings. The USA fostered free criticism of the phenomenon: no such criticism was allowed in the Muslim and Christian nations that started trading goods for slaves, and no such criticism was allowed in the African nations that started selling their own people (and, even today, no such criticism is allowed within the Arab world). Today it is politically correct to blame some European empires and the USA for slavery (forgetting that it was practiced by everybody since prehistoric times). But I rarely read the other side of the story: that the nations who were the first to develop a repulsion for slavery and eventually abolish slavery were precisely those countries (especially Britain and the USA). As Dinesh D'Souza wrote, "What is uniquely Western is not slavery but the movement to abolish slavery". (To be completely fair, what was also unique about the western slave trade is the scale (the millions shipped to another continent in a relatively short period of time), and, of course, that it eventually became a racist affair, discriminating blacks, whereas previous slave trades had not discriminated based on the color of the skin. What is unique about the USA, in particular, is the treatment that blacks received AFTER emancipation, which is, after all, the real source of the whole controversy, because, otherwise, just about everybody on this planet could claim to be the descendant of an ancient slave). (That does not mean that western slave traders were justified in what they did, but placing all the blame on them is a way to absolve all the others). To this day, too many Africans, Arabs and Europeans believe that the African slave trade was an USA aberration, not their own invention. By the time the slave trade was abolished in the West, there were many more slaves in Africa (black slaves of black owners) than in the Americas. Negro slave owners African history and the Slave Trade 1848: France abolishes slavery 1851: The population of the USA is 20,067,720 free persons and 2,077,034 slaves 1865: the Union defeats the Confederates and slavery is abolished in the USA Number of Africans deported by Arabs to the Middle East: about 17 million Number of Africans deported to the Americas by the Europeans: about 10-15 million (about 30-40 million died before reaching the Americas).   European slave trade by destination Brazil: 4,000,000 35.4% Spanish Empire: 2,500,000 22.1% British West Indies: 2,000,000 17.7% French West Indies: 1,600,00 14.1% British North America: 500,000 4.4% Dutch West Indies: 500,000 4.4% Danish West Indies: 28,000 0.2% Europe: 200,000 1.8% Total 1500-1900: 11,328,000 100.0% Source: "The Slave Trade", Hugh Thomas, 1997   By century 1500-1600: 328,000 (2.9%) 1601-1700: 1,348,000 (12.0%) 1701-1800: 6,090,000 (54.2%) 1801-1900: 3,466,000 (30.9%), including French and Portuguese contract labourers Source: "Transformations in Slavery", Paul Lovejoy, 2000   By slave-trading country Portugal/Brazil: 4,650,000 Spain: 1,600,000 France: 1,250,000 Holland: 500,000 Britain: 2,600,000 U.S.A.: 300,000 Denmark: 50,000 Others: 50,000 Total: 11,000,000 Source: "Slave Trade", Hugh Thomas, 1977

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