February 14, 1760 -- Birth of Richard Allen, founder in 1816 of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) denomination. By 1886, the Church was the world's largest denomination of African Americans. It had more than four hundred thousand members, nearly three thousand ordained ministers, more than three thousand church buildings, and had sent missionaries to Haiti, San Domingo, and Africa. In 1893 AME headquarters received a request from a group of Afro-Cubans to send missionaries to their island.
Causes
King Louis XVI of France faced a financial national crisis in the late 1700's
Adherents of most historical models identify many of the same features of the
Ancien Régime as being among the causes of the Revolution. Economic factors included
hunger and
malnutrition in the most destitute segments of the population, due to rising bread prices (from a normal eight
sous for a four-pound loaf to 12 sous by the end of 1789),
[3] after several years of poor grain harvests. The combination of bad harvests (due to abnormal/severe weather fluctuations) and rising food prices was further aggravated by an inadequate transportation system which hindered the shipment of bulk foods from rural areas to large population centers, contributing greatly to the destabilization of French society in the years leading up to the Revolution.
Another cause may have been France's near bankruptcy as a result of the many wars fought by previous rulers, as well as the financial strain caused by French participation in the
American Revolutionary War. The national debt amounted to almost 2 billion
livres. The social burdens caused by war included the huge war debt, made worse by the loss of France's colonial possessions in North America and the growing commercial dominance of Great Britain. France's inefficient and antiquated financial system was unable to manage the
national debt, something which was both partially caused and exacerbated by the burden of an inadequate system of taxation. To obtain new money to head off default on the government's loans, the king called an
Assembly of Notables in 1787.
Meanwhile the royal court at
Versailles was perceived by many as being isolated from, and indifferent to the hardships of the lower classes. While in theory
King Louis XVI was an absolute monarch, in practice he was often indecisive and known to back down when faced with strong opposition. While he did reduce government expenditures, opponents in the
parlements successfully thwarted his attempts at enacting much needed reforms. Those who were opposed to Louis' policies further undermined royal authority by distributing pamphlets (often reporting false or exaggerated information) that criticized the government and its officials, stirring up public opinion against the monarchy.
[4]Many other factors involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of
Enlightenment ideals. These included resentment of royal
absolutism; resentment by peasants, laborers and the
bourgeoisie toward the traditional
seigneurial privileges possessed by the nobility; resentment of the Church's influence over public policy and institutions; aspirations for
freedom of religion; resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy; aspirations for social, political and economic equality, and (especially as the Revolution progressed)
republicanism; hatred of Queen
Marie-Antoinette, who was (falsely) accused of being a spendthrift and an Austrian spy; and anger toward the King for firing
Jacques Necker, among others, who were popularly seen as representatives of the people.
[5]Pre-revolution
Financial crisis
Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back
Louis XVI ascended to the throne amidst a
financial crisis; the nation was nearing bankruptcy and outlays outpaced income.
[6] This was because of France’s financial obligations stemming from involvement in the
Seven Years War and its participation in the
American Revolutionary War.
[7] In May 1776, finance minister
Turgot was dismissed, after he failed to enact much needed reforms. The next year,
Jacques Necker, a foreigner, was appointed Comptroller-General of Finance. He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant.
[8] Necker realized that the country's tax system, which was perceived as quite
regressive, subjected the lower classes to a heavy burden;
[8] while numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy.
[9] He argued that the country could not be taxed higher, that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy must be reduced, and proposed that borrowing more money would solve the country's fiscal shortages. Necker published a report to support this claim that underestimated the deficit by roughly 36 million livres, and proposed restricting the power of the
parlements. This was not received well by the King's ministers and Necker, hoping to bolster his position, argued to be made a minister. The King refused, Necker was fired, and
Charles Alexandre de Calonne was appointed to the Comptrollership.
[8] Calonne initially spent liberally, but he quickly realized the critical financial situation and proposed a new
tax code.
[10] The proposal included a consistent
land tax, which would include taxation of the nobility and clergy. Faced with opposition from the parlements, Calonne organised the summoning of the
Assembly of Notables. But the Assembly failed to endorse Calonne's proposals and instead weakened his position through its criticism. In response, the King announced the calling of the
Estates-General, for May 1789, the first time the body had been summoned since 1614. This was a signal that the Bourbon monarchy was in a weakened state and subject to the demands of its people.
[11]
Estates-General of 1789
The Estates-General was organized into three estates, respectively: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France.
[12] On the last occasion that the Estates-General had met, in 1614, each estate held one vote, and any two could override the third. The
Parlement of Paris feared the government would attempt to
gerrymander an assembly to rig the results. Thus, they required that the Estates be arranged as in 1614.
[13] The 1614 rules differed from practices of local assemblies, wherein each member had one vote and
third estate membership was doubled. For instance, in the province of
Dauphiné the provincial assembly agreed to double the number of members of the third estate, hold membership elections, and allow one vote per member, rather than one vote per estate.
[14] The "Committee of Thirty," a body of liberal Parisians, began to agitate against voting by estate. This group, largely composed of the wealthy, argued for the Estates-General to assume the voting mechanisms of Dauphiné. They argued that ancient precedent was not sufficient, because "the people were sovereign."
[15] Necker convened a Second Assembly of the Notables, which rejected the notion of double representation by a vote of 111 to 333.
[15] The King, however, agreed to the proposition on 27 December; but he left discussion of the weight of each vote to the Estates-General itself.
[16]Elections were held in the spring of 1789; suffrage requirements for the Third Estate were for French-born or naturalised males only, at least 25 years of age, who resided where the vote was to take place and who paid taxes.
Pour être électeur du tiers état, il faut avoir 25 ans, être français ou naturalisé, être domicilié au lieu de vote et compris au rôle des impositions.[17]
Strong turnout produced 1,201 delegates, including: "291 nobles, 300 clergy, and 610 members of the Third Estate."
[16] To lead delegates, "Books of grievances" (
cahiers de doléances) were compiled to list problems.
[12] The books articulated ideas which would have seemed radical only months before; however, most supported the monarchical system in general. Many assumed the Estates-General would approve future taxes, and Enlightenment ideals were relatively rare.
[13][18] Pamphlets by liberal nobles and clergy became widespread after the lifting of press censorship.
[15] The
Abbé Sieyès, argued the importance of the Third Estate in the pamphlet
Qu'est-ce que le tiers état? (
What is the Third Estate?), published in January 1789. He asserted: "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing. What does it want to be? Something."
[13][19]
The meeting of the Estates General on May 5, 1789 in Versailles
The Estates-General convened in the Grands Salles des Menus-Plaisirs in
Versailles on 5 May 1789 and opened with a three-hour speech by Necker. The basic strategy of the Third Estate was to make sure that no decisions of the Estates-General should be reached in separate chambers, but instead should be made by all deputies from all three estates together (in other words, the strategy was to merge all three estates into one assembly). Thus they demanded that the verification of deputies' credentials should be undertaken in common by all deputies, rather than each estate verifying the credentials of its own members internally; negotiations with the other estates failed to achieve this.
[18] The commoners appealed to the clergy who replied they required more time. Necker asserted that each estate verify credentials and "the king was to act as arbitrator."
[20] Negotiations with the other two estates to achieve this, however, were unsuccessful.
[21]National Assembly (1789)
On 10 June 1789 Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the
Communes (English: "Commons"), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so two days later, completing the process on 17 June.
[22] Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the
National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People." They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.
[23]In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met, making an excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for a royal speech in two days. Weather did not allow an outdoor meeting, so the Assembly moved their deliberations to a nearby indoor
real tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the
Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a
constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. By 27 June, the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around
Paris and
Versailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities.
[24]National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)
Storming of the Bastille
By this time, Necker had earned the enmity of many members of the French court for his overt manipulation of public opinion.
Marie Antoinette, the King's younger brother the
Comte d'Artois, and other conservative members of the King's
privy council urged him to dismiss Necker as financial advisor. On 11 July 1789, after Necker published an inaccurate account of the government's debts and made it available to the public, the King fired him, and completely restructured the finance ministry at the same time.
[25]Many Parisians presumed Louis's actions to be the start of a royal action against the Assembly and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day. They were also afraid that arriving soldiers—mostly foreign mercenaries—had been summoned to shut down the
National Constituent Assembly. The Assembly, meeting at Versailles, went into nonstop session to prevent eviction from their meeting place once again. Paris was soon consumed by riots, chaos, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of some of the
French Guard, who were armed and trained soldiers.
[26]On 14 July, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the
Bastille fortress, which was also perceived to be a symbol of royal power. After several hours of combat, the prison fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a cease fire, which prevented a mutual massacre, Governor Marquis
Bernard de Launay was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city. Although the fortress had held only seven prisoners (four forgers, two noblemen kept for immoral behavior, and a murder suspect), the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the
Ancien Régime. Returning to the
Hôtel de Ville (city hall), the mob accused the
prévôt des marchands (roughly, mayor)
Jacques de Flesselles of treachery and he was butchered by the mob.
[27]The King, alarmed by the violence, backed down, at least for the time being.
La Fayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris.
Jean-Sylvain Bailly, president of the Assembly at the time of the
Tennis Court Oath, became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the
commune. The King visited Paris, where, on 17 July he accepted a
tricolore cockade, to cries of
Vive la Nation [Long live the Nation] and
Vive le Roi [Long live the King].
[28]Necker was recalled to power, but his triumph was short-lived. An astute financier but a less astute politician, Necker overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour.
As civil authority rapidly deteriorated, with random acts of violence and theft breaking out across the country, the nobility began to leave France as
émigrés, some of whom started plotting civil war and agitating for a European alliance against the Revolution.
[29]By late July, the spirit of
popular sovereignty had spread throughout France. In rural areas, many commoners began to form militias and arm themselves against a foreign invasion: some attacked the
châteaux of the nobility as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the
Great Fear). In addition, wild rumours and paranoia caused widespread unrest and civil disturbances that contributed to the collapse of law and order.
[30]Working toward a constitution
On 4 August 1789 the National Constituent Assembly abolished
feudalism (although at that point there had been sufficient peasant revolts to almost end feudalism already), in what is known as the
August Decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the
tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies and cities lost their special privileges.
Necker, Mounier, Lally-Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a
senate, with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic
upper house elected by the nobles. The popular party carried the day: France would have a single, unicameral assembly. The King retained only a "suspensive veto"; he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it absolutely. The Assembly eventually replaced the historic
provinces with 83
départements, uniformly administered and roughly equal in area and population.
Originally summoned to deal with a financial crisis, by late 1789, the Assembly had focused on other matters and only increased the deficit.
Honoré Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter, and the Assembly gave Necker complete financial dictatorship.
Women's March on Versailles
Engraving of the Women's March on Versailles, 5 October 1789
Fueled by rumors of a reception for the King's bodyguards on 1 October 1789 at which the national cockade had been trampled upon, on 5 October 1789 crowds of women began to assemble at Parisian markets. The women first marched to the
Hôtel de Ville, demanding that city officials address their concerns.
[31] The women were responding to the harsh economic situations they faced, especially bread shortages. They also demanded an end to royal efforts to block the National Assembly, and for the King and his administration to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in addressing the widespread poverty.
Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials, as many as 7,000 women joined the march to Versailles, bringing with them cannons and a variety of smaller weapons. Twenty thousand National Guardsmen under the command of La Fayette responded to keep order, and members of the mob stormed the palace, killing several guards.
[32] La Fayette ultimately convinced the king to accede to the demand of the crowd that the monarchy relocate to Paris.
On 6 October 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the protection of the National Guards, thus legitimizing the National Assembly.
Revolution and the Church
In this caricature, monks and nuns enjoy their new freedom after the decree of 16 February 1790
The Revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the
Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under the
Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest single landowner in the country, owning about 10 percent of the land in the kingdom.
[33] The Church was exempt from paying taxes to the government, however it levied a
tithe - a 10 percent tax on income, often collected in the form of crops — on the general population, which it then redistributed to the poor.
[33] The power and wealth of the Church was highly resented by some groups. A small minority of Protestants living in France, such as the
Huguenots, wanted an anti-Catholic regime and revenge against the clergy who discriminated against them.
Enlightenment thinkers such as
Voltaire helped fuel this resentment by denigrating the Catholic Church and destabilizing the French monarchy.
[34] As historian
John McManners argues, “In eighteenth-century France throne and altar were commonly spoken of as in close alliance; their simultaneous collapse ... would one day provide the final proof of their interdependence.”
[35]This resentment toward the Church weakened its power during the opening of the
Estates General in May of 1789. The Church composed the
First Estate with 130,000 members of the clergy. When the
National Assembly was later created in June 1789 by the
Third Estate, the clergy voted to join them, which perpetuated the destruction of the Estates General as a governing body.
[36] The National Assembly began to enact social and economic reform. Legislation sanctioned on 4 August 1789 abolished the Church's authority to impose the tithe. In an attempt to address the financial crisis, the Assembly declared, on 2 November 1789, that the property of the Church was “at the disposal of the nation.”
[37] They used this property to back a new currency, the
assignats. The nation had now thus also taken on the responsibility of the Church, which included paying the clergy, caring for the poor, the sick and the orphaned.
[38] In December, the Assembly began to sell the lands to the highest bidder to raise revenue, effectively decreasing the value of the assignats by 25 percent in two years.
[39] In autumn of 1789, legislation abolished
monastic vows and on 13 February 1790 all religious orders were dissolved.
[40] Monks and nuns were encouraged to return to private life and a small percentage did eventually marry.
[41]The
Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12 July 1790, turned the remaining clergy into employees of the state. This established an election system for parish priests and bishops and set a pay rate for the clergy. Many Catholics objected to the election system because it effectively denied the authority of the Pope in Rome over the French Church. Eventually, in November 1790, the National Assembly began to require an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution from all the members of the clergy.
[41] This led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement and those who remained loyal to the Pope. Overall 24 percent of the clergy nationwide took the oath.
[42] Widespread refusal led to legislation against the clergy, “forcing them into exile, deporting them forcibly, or executing them as traitors.”
[39] Pope Pius VI never accepted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, further isolating the Church in France. During the
Reign of Terror, extreme efforts of de-Christianization ensued, including the imprisonment and massacre of
priests and destruction of churches and religious images throughout France. An effort was made to replace the Catholic Church altogether, with civic festivals replacing religious ones. The establishment of the cult of Reason was the final step of radical de-Christianization. These events led to a widespread disillusionment with the Revolution and counter-rebellions across France. Locals often resisted de-Christianization efforts by attacking revolutionary agents and hiding members of the clergy who were being hunted. Eventually,
Robespierre and the
Committee of Public Safety were forced to denounce the campaign.
[43] The
Concordat of 1801 between Napoleon and the Church ended the de-Christianization period and established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the
Third Republic via the
separation of church and state on 11 December 1905. The persecution of the Church led to a counter revolution known as the
Revolt in the Vendee, the suppression of which revolt is considered by some to be the first modern
genocide.
Intrigues and radicalism
The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly, included
Honoré Mirabeau, La Fayette, and Bailly; while
Adrien Duport,
Barnave and
Alexandre Lameth represented somewhat more extreme views. Almost alone in his radicalism on the left was the
Arras lawyer
Maximilien Robespierre. Abbé
Sieyès led in proposing legislation in this period and successfully forged consensus for some time between the political centre and the
left. In Paris, various committees, the mayor, the assembly of representatives, and the individual districts each claimed authority independent of the others. The increasingly
middle-class National Guard under La Fayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right, as did other self-generated assemblies.
The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the
Ancien Régime—armorial bearings, liveries, etc.—which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the
émigrés. On 14 July 1790, and for several days following, crowds in the
Champ de Mars celebrated the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille with the
Fête de la Fédération;
Talleyrand performed a mass; participants swore an oath of "fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king"; and the King and the royal family actively participated.
[44]The electors had originally chosen the members of the
Estates-General to serve for a single year. However, by the terms of the
Tennis Court Oath, the
communes had bound themselves to meet continuously until France had a constitution. Right-wing elements now argued for a new election, but Mirabeau carried the day, asserting that the status of the assembly had fundamentally changed, and that no new election should take place before completing the constitution.
[citation needed]In late 1790, the French army was in considerable disarray. The military officer corps was largely composed of noblemen, who found it increasingly difficult to maintain order within the ranks. In some cases, soldiers (drawn from the lower classes) had turned against their aristocratic commanders and attacked them. At
Nancy General
Bouillé successfully put down one such rebellion, only to be accused of being anti-revolutionary for doing so. This and other such incidents spurred a mass desertion as more and more officers defected to other countries, leaving a dearth of experienced leadership within the army.
[45]This period also saw the rise of the political "clubs" in French politics, foremost among these was the
Jacobin Club; 152 members had affiliated with the Jacobins by 10 August 1790. The Jacobin Society began as a broad, general organization for political debate, but as it grew in members, various factions developed with widely differing views. Several of these fractions broke off to form their own clubs, such as the
Club of '89.
[46]Amidst these developments, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organisation made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself.
Jury trials started for criminal cases. The King would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organisations: any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.
[47]In the winter of 1791, the Assembly considered, for the first time, legislation against the
émigrés. The debate pitted the safety of the Revolution against the liberty of individuals to leave. Mirabeau carried the day against the measure, which he referred to as "worthy of being placed in the code of
Draco".
[45] But Mirabeau died on 2 April 1791 and, before the end of the year, the new Legislative Assembly would adopt this draconian measure.
[48]Royal flight to Varennes
The return of the royal family to Paris on 25 June 1791, after their failed flight to Varennes
Louis XVI, opposed to the course of the Revolution, but rejecting the potentially treacherous aid of the other monarchs of Europe, cast his lot with General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigration and the Assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at
Montmédy. On the night of 20 June 1791 the royal family fled the Tuileries Palace wearing the clothes of servants, while their servants dressed as nobles.
Completing the constitution
As most of the Assembly still favoured a
constitutional monarchy rather than a
republic, the various groups reached a compromise which left Louis XVI as little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to
de facto abdication.
[citation needed]Jacques Pierre Brissot drafted a petition, insisting that in the eyes of the nation Louis XVI was deposed since his flight. An immense crowd gathered in the
Champ de Mars to sign the petition.
Georges Danton and
Camille Desmoulins gave fiery speeches. The Assembly called for the municipal authorities to "preserve public order". The National Guard under La Fayette's command confronted the crowd. The soldiers responded to a barrage of stones by firing into the crowd, thus killing between thirteen and fifty people.
[54]
In the wake of this massacre the authorities closed many of the patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as
Jean-Paul Marat's
L'Ami du Peuple. Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat went into hiding.
[citation needed]Even before the "Flight to Varennes", the Assembly members had determined to debar themselves from the legislature that would succeed them, the
Legislative Assembly. They now gathered the various constitutional laws they had passed into a single constitution, showed remarkable strength in choosing not to use this as an occasion for major revisions, and submitted it to the recently restored Louis XVI, who accepted it, writing "I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad, and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal". The King addressed the Assembly and received enthusiastic applause from members and spectators. The Assembly set the end of its term for 29 September 1791.
[citation needed]Mignet argued that the "constitution of 1791... was the work of the middle class, then the strongest; for, as is well known, the predominant force ever takes possession of institutions... In this constitution the people was the source of all powers, but it exercised none."
[56]Legislative Assembly (1791–1792)
Failure of the constitutional monarchy
Under the
Constitution of 1791, France would function as a
constitutional monarchy. The King had to share power with the elected
Legislative Assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers. The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. In the words of the
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: "In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty
treasury, an undisciplined
army and
navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot."
[57] The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165
Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) on the
right, about 330
Girondists (liberal republicans) and
Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) on the
left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction. Early on, the King vetoed legislation that threatened the
émigrés with death and that decreed that every
non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, such disagreements would lead to a
constitutional crisis.
[citation needed]Constitutional crisis
On August 10, 1792 the Paris Commune stormed the Tuileries Palace and massacred the
Swiss Guards
On the night of 10 August 1792, insurgents, supported by a new revolutionary
Paris Commune, assailed the Tuileries Palace and massacred the
Swiss Guards who were assigned for the protection of the king. The royal family ended up prisoners and a
rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy; little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins.
What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. The Commune sent gangs into the prisons to try arbitrarily and butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example. The Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until the
Convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 September 1792 and became the new
de facto government of France. The next day it
abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of
Year One of the
French Republican Calendar.
War and Counter-Revolution (1792–1797)
The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with
Austria and its allies. The King, many of the Feuillants and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to
export the Revolution throughout Europe and, by extension, to defend the Revolution within France. The forces opposing war were much weaker. Barnave and his supporters among the Feuillants feared a war they thought France had little chance to win and which they feared might lead to greater radicalization of the revolution. On the other end of the political spectrum, Robespierre opposed war, preferring to consolidate and expand the Revolution at home. The Austrian
emperor Leopold II, brother of
Marie Antoinette, may have wished to avoid war, but he died on 1 March 1792.
[58] France declared war on
Austria (20 April 1792) and
Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The invading Prussian army faced little resistance until checked at the
Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792), and forced to withdraw. However, by this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past.
[citation needed]The new-born Republic followed up on this success with a series of victories in Belgium and the Rhineland in the fall of 1792. The French armies defeated the Austrians at the
Battle of Jemappes on November 6, and had soon taken over most of the Austrian Netherlands. This brought them into conflict with Britain and the Dutch Republic, who had a strong interest to preserve the independence of the southern Netherlands from France. After the king's execution in January 1793, these powers, along with Spain and most other European states, joined the war against France. Almost immediately, French forces faced defeat on many fronts, and were driven out of their newly conquered territories in the spring of 1793. At the same time, the republican regime was forced to deal with rebellions against its authority in much of western and southern France. The allies failed to take advantage of French disunity, however, and by the fall of 1793 the republican regime had defeated most of the internal rebellions and halted the allied advance into France itself.
The stalemate was broken in the summer of 1794 with dramatic French victories. They defeated the allied army at the
Battle of Fleurus, leading to a full Allied withdrawal from the Austrian Netherlands. They followed up by a campaign which swept the allies to the right bank of the Rhine and left the French, by the beginning of 1795, conquering Holland itself. The House of Orange was expelled and replaced by the
Batavian Republic, a French satellite state. These victories led to the collapse of the coalition against France. Prussia, having effectively abandoned the coalition in the fall of 1794, made peace with revolutionary France at
Basel in April 1795, and soon thereafter Spain, too, made its peace with France. Of the major powers, only Britain and Austria remained at war with France.
National Convention (1792–1795)
Execution of Louis XVI
Execution of Louis XVI in what is now the Place de la Concorde, facing the empty pedestal where the statue of his grandfather,
Louis XV, had stood.
In the
Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population if it were to resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. This made Louis appear to be conspiring with the enemies of France. 17 January 1793 saw Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety" by a close majority in Convention: 361 voted to execute the king, 288 voted against, and another 72 voted to execute him subject to a variety of delaying conditions. The former Louis XVI, now simply named
Citoyen Louis Capet (Citizen Louis Capet), was executed by
guillotine on 21 January 1793 on the
Place de la Révolution, former
Place Louis XV, now called the
Place de la Concorde.
[59] Royalty across Europe was horrified and many heretofore neutral countries soon joined the war against revolutionary France.
Economy
When war went badly, prices rose and the
sans-culottes — poor labourers and radical Jacobins — rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary
coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian
sans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and
sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical, as
"The Law of the Maximum" set food prices and led to executions of offenders.
[60] This policy of price control was coeval with the
Committee of Public Safety's rise to power and the
Reign of Terror. The Committee first attempted to set the price for only a limited number of grain products but, by September of 1793, it expanded the "maximum" to cover all foodstuffs and a long list of other goods.
[61] Widespread shortages and famine ensued. The Committee reacted by sending dragoons into the countryside to arrest farmers and seize crops. This temporarily solved the problem in Paris, but the rest of the country suffered. By the spring of 1794, forced collection of food was not sufficient to feed even Paris and the days of the Committee were numbered. When Robespierre went to the guillotine in July of that year the crowd jeered, "There goes the dirty maximum!"
[62]Reign of Terror
Satirical cartoon from England lampooning the excesses of the Revolution as symbolized through the
guillotine: between 18,000 and 40,000 people were executed during the Reign of Terror
Queen Marie Antoinette on the way to the guillotine on October 16, 1793 (drawing by
Jacques-Louis David)
The
Committee of Public Safety came under the control of
Maximilien Robespierre, a lawyer, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793–1794). According to archival records, at least 16,594 people died under the
guillotine or otherwise after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities.
[63] A number of historians note that as many as 40,000 accused prisoners may have been summarily executed without trial or died awaiting trial.
[63][64]On 2 June 1793, Paris sections — encouraged by the
enragés ("enraged ones")
Jacques Roux and
Jacques Hébert — took over the
Convention, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for
bread, and a limitation of the electoral
franchise to "
sans-culottes" alone.
[65] With the backing of the
National Guard, they managed to convince the Convention to arrest 31 Girondin leaders, including
Jacques Pierre Brissot. Following these arrests, the Jacobins gained control of the Committee of Public Safety on 10 June, installing the
revolutionary dictatorship. On 13 July, the assassination of
Jean-Paul Marat — a Jacobin leader and journalist known for his bloodthirsty rhetoric — by
Charlotte Corday, a Girondin, resulted in further increase of Jacobin political influence.
Georges Danton, the leader of the
August 1792 uprising against the
King, undermined by several political reversals, was removed from the Committee and Robespierre, "the Incorruptible", became its most influential member as it moved to take radical measures against the Revolution's domestic and foreign enemies.
[66]Meanwhile, on 24 June, the Convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, variously referred to as the
French Constitution of 1793 or Constitution of the Year I. It was progressive and radical in several respects, in particular by establishing
universal male suffrage. It was ratified by public
referendum, but never applied, because normal legal processes were suspended before it could take effect.
[67]War in the Vendée
The
War in the Vendée was a royalist uprising that was suppressed by the republican forces in 1796
After the defeat at
Savenay, when regular warfare in the Vendée was at an end, the French general
Francois Joseph Westermann penned a letter to the Committee of Public Safety stating
“There is no more Vendée. It died with its wives and its children by our free sabres. I have just buried it in the woods and the swamps of Savenay. According to the orders that you gave me, I crushed the children under the feet of the horses, massacred the women who, at least for these, will not give birth to any more brigands. I do not have a prisoner to reproach me. I have exterminated all. The roads are sown with corpses. At Savenay, brigands are arriving all the time claiming to surrender, and we are shooting them non-stop... Mercy is not a revolutionary sentiment."
[70][71]
However, some historians doubt the authenticity of this document
[72] and others point out that the claims in it were patently false — there were in fact thousands of (living) Vendean prisoners, the revolt had been far from crushed,
[73] and the Convention had explicitly decreed that women, children and unarmed men were to be treated humanely.
[74] It has been hypothesized that if the letter is authentic, that may have been Westermann's attempt to exaggerate the intensity of his actions and his success, because he was eager to avoid being purged for his incompetent military leadership and for his opposition to
sans-culotte generals (he failed to avoid that, since he was guillotined together with Danton's group).
[75]The revolt and its suppression (including both combat casualties and massacres and executions on both sides) are thought to have taken between 117 000 and 250 000 lives (170 000 according to the latest estimates).
[76] Because of the extremely brutal forms that the Republican repression took in many places, certain historians such as
Reynald Secher have called the event a "
genocide". This description has become popular in the
mass media,
[77] but it has attracted much criticism in academia as being unrealistic and biased.
[78]Facing local revolts and foreign invasions in both the East and West of the country, the most urgent government business was the war. On 17 August, the Convention voted for general
conscription, the
levée en masse, which mobilized all citizens to serve as soldiers or suppliers in the war effort.
The result was a policy through which the state used violent repression to crush resistance to the government. Under control of the effectively dictatorial Committee, the Convention quickly enacted more legislation. On 9 September, the Convention established
sans-culottes paramilitary forces, the
revolutionary armies, to force farmers to surrender
grain demanded by the government. On 17 September, the
Law of Suspects was passed, which authorized the charging of counter-revolutionaries with vaguely defined crimes against liberty. On 29 September, the Convention extended price-fixing from grain and bread to other household goods and declared the right to set a limit on wages.
[79]The guillotine as a symbol
The
guillotine became the symbol of a string of executions. Louis XVI had already been guillotined before the start of the terror; Queen Marie Antoinette, Barnave, Bailly, Brissot and other leading Girondins,
Philippe Égalité (despite his vote for the death of the King),
Madame Roland and many others were executed by guillotine. The
Revolutionary Tribunal summarily condemned thousands of people to death by the guillotine, while mobs beat other victims to death.
At the peak of the terror, the slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of
Jacques Hébert, revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and trials did not always proceed according to contemporary standards of
due process. Sometimes people died for their political opinions or actions, but many for little reason beyond mere suspicion, or because some others had a stake in getting rid of them. Most of the victims received an unceremonious trip to the guillotine in an open wooden cart (the
tumbrel). In the rebellious provinces, the government representatives had unlimited authority and some engaged in extreme repressions and abuses. For example,
Jean-Baptiste Carrier became notorious for the
Noyades ["drownings"] - he organized in
Nantes;
[80] his conduct was judged unacceptable even by the Jacobin government and he was recalled.
[citation needed]The Reign of Terror enabled the revolutionary government to avoid military defeat. The Jacobins expanded the size of the army, and
Carnot replaced many aristocratic officers with younger soldiers who had demonstrated their ability and patriotism. The Republican army was able to throw back the
Austrians,
Prussians,
British, and Spanish. At the end of 1793, the army began to prevail and revolts were defeated with ease. The
Ventôse Decrees (February–March 1794) proposed the confiscation of the goods of exiles and opponents of the Revolution, and their redistribution to the needy.
[82]In the spring of 1794, both extremist
enragés such as Hébert and moderate
Montagnard indulgents such as Danton were charged with counter-revolutionary activities, tried and guillotined. On 7 June Robespierre, who had previously condemned the
Cult of Reason, advocated a new state religion and recommended the Convention acknowledge the existence of the "Supreme Being".
[83]Thermidorian Reaction
The execution of Robespierre on July 28, 1794 marked the end of the Reign of Terror
On 27 July 1794, the
Thermidorian Reaction led to the arrest and execution of Robespierre and
Louis de Saint-Just. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by persecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre, banning the Jacobin Club, and executing many of its former members in what was known as the
White Terror.
[citation needed]In the wake of excesses of the Terror, the Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III" on 22 August 1795. A French
plebiscite ratified the document, with about 1,057,000 votes for the constitution and 49,000 against.
[84] The results of the voting were announced on 23 September 1795, and the new constitution took effect on 27 September 1795.
[84]The Constitutional Republic: The Directory (1795–1799)
The new constitution created the
Directoire (
English:
Directory) and the first
bicameral legislature in French history.
[85] The parliament consisted of 500 representatives — the
Conseil des Cinq-Cents (Council of the Five Hundred) — and 250 senators — the
Conseil des Anciens (Council of Elders). Executive power went to five "directors," named annually by the
Conseil des Anciens from a list submitted by the
Conseil des Cinq-Cents.
[citation needed] Furthermore, the
universal suffrage of 1793 was replaced by limited suffrage based on property.
[citation needed]With the establishment of the Directory, contemporary observers might have assumed that the Revolution was finished. Citizens of the war-weary nation wanted stability, peace, and an end to conditions that at times bordered on chaos. Those who wished to restore the monarchy and the
Ancien Régime by putting
Louis XVIII on the throne, and those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the failure of the
First Coalition. The earlier atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of self-preservation which had led the members of the Convention to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole of the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance.
[citation needed]As many French citizens distrusted the Directory,
[86] the directors could achieve their purposes only by extraordinary means. They habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, even when the elections that they rigged went against them,
[87] the directors routinely used draconian police measures to quell dissent. Moreover, the Directory used
war as the best expedient for prolonging their power, and the directors were thus driven to rely on the armies, which also desired war and grew less and less civic-minded.
[citation needed]Other reasons influenced them in this direction. State finances during the earlier phases of the Revolution had been so thoroughly ruined that the government could not have met its expenses without the plunder and the tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies would return home and the directors would have to face the exasperation of the rank-and-file who had lost their livelihood, as well as the ambition of generals who could, in a moment, brush them aside.
Barras and
Rewbell were notoriously corrupt themselves and screened corruption in others. The patronage of the directors was ill-bestowed, and the general maladministration heightened their unpopularity.
[citation needed]
Napoléon Bonaparte in the
coup d'état of 18 Brumaire, which marked the end of the revolution
The constitutional party in the legislature desired
toleration of the
nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives of the
émigrés, and some merciful discrimination toward the émigrés themselves. The directors baffled all such endeavours. On the other hand, the
socialist conspiracy of
Babeuf was easily quelled. Little was done to improve the finances, and the
assignats continued to fall in value.
[citation needed]The new
régime met opposition from remaining Jacobins and the royalists. The army suppressed riots and counter-revolutionary activities. In this way the army and its successful general,
Napoleon Bonaparte eventually gained much power.
Symbolism in the French Revolution
Early depiction of the tricolour in the hands of a
sans-culotte during the French Revolution
The French Revolution was a time of upheaval, especially towards traditional ideology, in almost every sense- the current monarch,
King Louis XVI, was executed; the Catholic Church was all but abolished; a new
calendar was created; and a new Republican government was established. In order to effectively illustrate the differences between the new Republic and the old regime, the leaders needed to implement a new set of symbols to be celebrated instead of the old religious and monarchical symbolism. To this end, symbols were borrowed from historic cultures and redefined, while those of the old regime were either destroyed or reattributed acceptable characteristics. These revised symbols were used to instill in the public a new sense of tradition and reverence for the Enlightenment and the Republic.
[88]Fasces
Fasces, likes many other symbols of the French Revolution, are Roman in origin. Fasces are a bundle of birch rods containing an axe. In Roman times, the fasces symbolized the power of magistrates who could order the beating of a criminal, representing union and accord with the Roman Republic.
[88] The French Republic continued this Roman symbol to represent state power, justice, and unity. During the French Revolution the fasces image is seen in conjunction with many other symbols. This is seen with many emblems of the French Revolution. Though seen throughout the French Revolution, perhaps the most well known French reincarnation of the fasces is the Fasces surmounted by a Phrygian cap. This image has no display of an axe or a strong central state; rather, it symbolizes the power of the liberated people by placing the Liberty Cap on top of the classical symbol of power.
[88]
Liberty Cap
The Liberty cap, also known as the
Phrygian cap, or
pileus, is a brimless, felt cap that is conical in shape with the tip pulled forward. The cap was originally worn by ancient Romans and Greeks.
[89] The cap implies ennobling effects, as seen in its association with Homer’s
Ulysses and the mythical twins,
Castor and Pollux. The emblem’s popularity during the French Revolution is due in part to its importance in ancient Rome: its use alludes to the Roman ritual of manumission of slaves, in which a freed slave receives the bonnet as a symbol of his newfound liberty. The Roman tribune
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus incited the slaves to insurrection by displaying a pileus as if it were a standard.
[90] The pileus cap is often red in color. This type of cap was worn by revolutionaries at the fall of the Bastille. According to the Revolutions de Paris, it became “the symbol of the liberation from all servitudes, the sign for unification of all the enemies of despotism.”
[88] The pileus competed with the Phrygian cap, a similar cap that covered the ears and the nape of the neck, for popularity. The Phrygian cap eventually supplanted the pileus and usurped its symbolism, becoming synonymous with republican liberty.
[88]Liberty Tree
The Liberty Tree, officially adopted in 1792, is a symbol of the everlasting Republic, national freedom, and political revolution.
[88] It has historic roots in revolutionary France as well as America, as a symbol that was shared by the two nascent republics.
[91] The tree was chosen as a symbol of the French Revolution because it is a symbol of fertility in French folklore,
[92] which provided a simple transition from revering it for one reason to another. The American colonies also used the idea of a Liberty Tree to celebrate their own acts of insurrection against the British, starting with the Stamp Act riot in 1765.
[93] The riot culminated in the hanging in effigy of two Stamp Act politicians on a large elm tree. The elm tree began to be celebrated as a symbol of Liberty in the American colonies.
[93] It was adopted as a symbol that needed to be living and growing, along with the Republic. To that end, the tree is portrayed as a sapling, usually of an oak tree in French interpretation.
[94] The Liberty Tree serves as a constant celebration of the spirit of political freedom.
Hercules
- The symbol of Hercules was first adopted by the Old Regime to represent the monarchy.[95] Hercules was an ancient Greek hero who symbolized strength and power. The symbol was used to represent the sovereign authority of the King over France during the reign of the Bourbon monarchs.[96] However, the monarchy was not the only ruling power in French history to use the symbol of Hercules to declare its power.
- During the Revolution, the symbol of Hercules was revived to represent nascent revolutionary ideals. The first use of Hercules as a revolutionary symbol was during a festival celebrating the National Assembly’s victory over federalism on August 10, 1793.[97] This Festival of Unity consisted of four stations around Paris which featured symbols representing major events of the Revolution which embodied revolutionary ideals of liberty, unity, and power.[98] The statue of Hercules, placed at the station commemorating the fall of Louis XVI, symbolized the power of the French people over their former oppressors. The statue’s foot was placed on the throat of the Hydra, which represented the tyranny of federalism which the new Republic had vanquished.[97] In one hand, the statue grasped a club, a symbol of power, while in the other grasping the fasces which symbolized the unity of the French people.[99] The image of Hercules assisted the new Republic in establishing its new Republican moral system.[98] Hercules thus evolved from a symbol of the sovereignty of the monarch into a symbol of the new sovereign authority in France: the French people.[100] This transition was made easily for two reasons. First, because Hercules was a famous mythological figure, and had previously been used by the monarchy, he was easily recognized by educated French observers.[96] It was not necessary for the revolutionary government to educate the French people on the background of the symbol. Additionally, Hercules recalled the classical age of the Greeks and the Romans, a period which the revolutionaries identified with republican and democratic ideals. These connotations made Hercules an easy choice to represent the powerful new sovereign people of France.
- During the more radical phase of the Revolution from 1793 to 1794, the usage and depiction of Hercules changed. These changes to the symbol were due to revolutionary leaders believing the symbol was inciting violence among the common citizens.[101] The triumphant battles of Hercules and the overcoming of enemies of the Republic became less prominent. In discussions over what symbol to use for the Seal of the Republic, the image of Hercules was considered but eventually ruled out in favor of Marianne.[101] Hercules was on the coin of the Republic.[101] However, this Hercules was not the same image as that of the pre-Terror phases of the Revolution. The new image of Hercules was more domesticated. He appeared more paternal, older, and wiser, rather than the warrior-like images in the early stages of the French Revolution.[101] Unlike his 24 foot statue in the Festival of the Supreme Being, he was now the same size as Liberty and Equality.[101] Also the language on the coin with Hercules was far different than the rhetoric of pre-revolutionary depictions. On the coins the words, “uniting Liberty and Equality” were used.[101] This is opposed to the forceful language of early Revolutionary rhetoric and rhetoric of the Bourbon monarchy. By 1798, the Council of Ancients had discussed the “inevitable” change from the problematic image of Hercules, and Hercules was eventually phased out in favor of an even more docile image.[101]Women had no political rights in pre-Revolutionary France; they couldn’t vote or hold any political office. They were considered “passive” citizens; forced to rely on men to determine what was best for them in the government. It was the men who defined these categories, and women were forced to accept male domination in the political sphere.[102] The Encyclopédie, published by a group of philosophers over the years 1751–1777, summarized French male beliefs of women. A woman was a “failed man,” the fetus not fully developed in the womb. “Women’s testimony is in general light and subject to variation; this is why it is taken more seriously than that of men” as opposed to men, upon whom “Nature seems to have conferred… the right to govern.” In general, “men are more capable than women of ably governing particular matters”.[103] Instead, women were taught to be committed to their husbands and “all his interests… [to show] attention and care… [and] sincere and discreet zeal for his salvation.” A woman’s education often consisted of learning to be a good wife and mother; as a result women were not supposed to be involved in the political sphere, as the limit of their influence was the raising of future citizens.[104]
When the Revolution opened, some women struck forcefully, using the volatile political climate to assert their active natures. In the time of the Revolution, women could not be kept out of the political sphere; they swore oaths of loyalty, “solemn declarations of patriotic allegiance, [and] affirmations of the political responsibilities of citizenship.” Throughout the Revolution, women such as
Pauline Léon and her
Society of Revolutionary Republican Women fought for the right to bear arms, used armed force and rioted.
[105]
The March to Versailles is but one example of feminist militant activism during the French Revolution. While largely left out of the thrust for increasing rights of citizens, as the question was left indeterminate in the Declaration of the Rights of Man,
[106] activists such as
Pauline Léon and
Théroigne de Méricourt agitated for full citizenship for women.
[107] Women were, nonetheless, “denied political rights of ‘active citizenship’ (1791) and democratic citizenship (1793).”
[106]Pauline Léon, on 6 March 1792, submitted a petition signed by 319 women to the National Assembly requesting permission to form a garde national in order to defend Paris in case of military invasion.
[107] Léon requested permission be granted to women to arm themselves with pikes, pistols, sabers and rifles, as well as the privilege of drilling under the French Guards. Her request was denied.
[108] Later in 1792, Théroigne de Méricourt made a call for the creation of “legions of amazons” in order to protect the revolution. As part of her call, she claimed that the right to bear arm would transform women into citizens.
[109]On 20 June 1792 a number of armed women took part in a procession that “passed through the halls of the Legislative Assembly, into the Tuilleries Gardens, and then through the King’s residence.”
[110] Militant women also assumed a special role in the funeral of
Marat, following his murder on 13 July 1793. As part of the funeral procession, they carried the bathtub in which Marat had been murdered as well as a shirt stained with Marat’s blood.
[111]The most radical militant feminist activism was practiced by the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, which was founded by Léon and her colleague, Claire Lacombe on 10 May 1793.
[112] The goal of the club was “to deliberate on the means of frustrating the projects of the enemies of the Republic.” Up to 180 women attended the meetings of the Society.
[113] Of special interest to the Society was “combating hoarding [of grain and other staples] and inflation.”
[114]Later, on 20 May 1793, women were at the fore of a crowd that demanded “bread and the Constitution of 1793.”
[115] When their cries went unnoticed, the women went on a rampage, “sacking shops, seizing grain and kidnapping officials.”
[116]Most of these outwardly activist women were punished for their actions. The kind of punishment received during the Revolution included public denouncement, arrest, execution, or exile. Théroigne de Méricourt was arrested, publicly flogged and then spent the rest of her life sentenced to an insane asylum. Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe were arrested, later released, and continued to receive ridicule and abuse for their activism. Many of the women of the Revolution were even publicly executed for “conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic”.
[117]These are but a few examples of the militant feminism that was prevalent during the French Revolution. While little progress was made toward gender equality during the Revolution, the activism of French feminists was bold and particularly significant in Paris.
[citation needed]Women writers
While some women chose a militant, and often violent, path, others chose to influence events through writing, publications, and meetings.
Olympe de Gouges wrote a number of plays, short stories, and novels. Her publications emphasized that women and men are different, but this shouldn’t stop them from equality under the law. In her “Declaration on the Rights of Woman” she insisted that women deserved rights, especially in areas concerning them directly, such as divorce and recognition of illegitimate children. De Gouges also expressed non-gender political views; even before the start of the terror, Olympe de Gouges addressed Robespierre using the pseudonym “Polyme” calling him the Revolution’s “infamy and shame.” She warned of the Revolution’s building extremism saying that leaders were “preparing new shackles if [the French people’s liberty were to] waver.” Stating that she was willing to sacrifice herself by jumping into the Seine if Robespierre were to join her, de Gouges desperately attempted to grab the attention of the French citizenry and alert them to the dangers that Robespierre embodied.
[118] In addition to these bold writings, her defense of the king was one of the factors leading to her execution. An influential figure, one of her suggestions early in the Revolution, to have a voluntary, patriotic tax, was adopted by the National Convention in 1789.
[119]Madame Roland (aka Manon or Marie Roland) was another important female activist. Her political focus was not specifically on women or their liberation. She focused on other aspects of the government, but was a feminist by virtue of the fact that she was a woman working to influence the world. Her personal letters to leaders of the Revolution influenced policy; in addition, she often hosted political gatherings of the Brissotins, a political group which allowed women to join. While limited by her gender, Madame Roland took it upon herself to spread Revolutionary ideology and spread word of events, as well as to assist in formulating the policies of her political allies. Though unable to directly write policies or carry them through to the government, Roland was able to influence her political allies and thus promote her political agenda. Roland attributed women’s lack of education to the public view that women were too weak or vain to be involved in the serious business of politics. She believed that it was this inferior education that turned them into foolish people, but women “could easily be concentrated and solidified upon objects of great significance” if given the chance.
[120] As she was led to the scaffold, Madame Roland shouted “O liberty! What crimes are committed in thy name!” Witnesses of her life and death, editors, and readers helped to finish her writings and several editions were published posthumously. While she did not focus on gender politics in her writings, by taking an active role in the tumultuous time of the Revolution, Roland took a stand for women of the time and proved they could take an intelligent active role in politics.
[121]
Though women did not gain the right to vote as a result of the Revolution, they still greatly expanded their political participation and involvement in governing. They set precedents for generations of feminists to come.
The French Revolution has received enormous amounts of historical attention, both from the general public and from scholars and academics. The views of historians, in particular, have been characterized as falling along ideological lines, with
liberal,
conservative,
communist, and
anarchist scholars—among others—disagreeing over the significance and the major developments of the Revolution.
[122] Alexis de Tocqueville argued that the Revolution was a manifestation of a more prosperous
middle class becoming conscious of its social importance.
[123] Other thinkers, like the conservative
Edmund Burke, maintained that the Revolution was the product of a few conspiratorial individuals who brainwashed the masses into subverting the old order—a claim rooted in the belief that the revolutionaries had no legitimate complaints.
[124] Other historians, influenced by
Marxist thinking, have emphasized the importance of the peasants and the urban workers in presenting the Revolution as a gigantic
class struggle.
[125] In general, scholarship on the French Revolution initially studied the political ideas and developments of the era, but it has gradually shifted towards
social history that analyzes the impact of the Revolution on individual lives.
[126]Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in
human history, and the end of the
early modern period, which started around 1500, is traditionally attributed to the onset of the French Revolution in 1789.
[127] The Revolution is, in fact, often seen as marking the "dawn of the
modern era".
[128] Within France itself, the Revolution permanently crippled the power of the
aristocracy and drained the wealth of the Church, although the two institutions survived despite the damage they sustained. After the collapse of the
First Empire in 1815, the French public lost the rights and privileges earned since the Revolution, but they remembered the participatory politics that characterized the period, with one historian commenting: "Thousands of men and even many women gained firsthand experience in the political arena: they talked, read, and listened in new ways; they voted; they joined new organizations; and they marched for their political goals. Revolution became a tradition, and
republicanism an enduring option."
[129] Some historians argue that the French people underwent a fundamental transformation in self-identity, evidenced by the elimination of privileges and their replacement by
rights as well as the growing decline in social deference that highlighted the principle of equality throughout the Revolution.
[130] Outside France, the Revolution captured the imagination of the world. It had a profound impact on the
Russian Revolution and its ideas were imbibed by
Mao Zedong in his efforts at constructing a communist state in
China.
[131
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